Unit 1

Introduction: Characteristics of Database approach, Actors on

the Scene, Workers behind the scene, Advantages of using DBMS
approach, Data models, schemas and instances, Three schema
architecture and data independence, Database languages and
interfaces, the database system environment, Centralized and
client-server architectures, Classification of Database
Management systems
Entity-Relationship Model: Conceptual Database using high level
conceptual data models for Database Design, A Sample Database
Application, Entity types, Entity sets Attributes and Keys
Relationship types, Relationship Sets, Roles and Structural
Constraints Weak Entity Types.
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Data models, Schemas and
Instances
Data model - a collection of concepts that can be
used to describe the structure of a database.
Structure of a database - the data types,
relationships, and constraints that apply to the data.
Most data models also include a set of basic
operations for specifying retrievals and updates on
the database.

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Categories of data models
Conceptual (high-level, semantic) data models:
Provide concepts that are close to the way many users
perceive data. (Also called entity-based or object-
based data models.)
Physical (low-level, internal) data models: Provide
concepts that describe details of how data is stored in
the computer.
Implementation (representational) data models:
Provide concepts that fall between the above two,
balancing user views with some computer storage
details.

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 Schemas, Instances, and
Database State
•Database Schema: The description of a database.
Includes descriptions of the database structure and the
constraints that should hold on the database.
•Schema Diagram: A diagrammatic display of (some
aspects of) a database schema.
•Schema Construct: A component of the schema or an
object within the schema, e.g., STUDENT, COURSE.
•Database Instance: The actual data stored in a database
at a particular moment in time. Also called database
state (or occurrence).

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Slide 2-5
 Database Schema Vs.
Database State
•Database State: Refers to the content of a database at a
moment in time.
•Initial Database State: Refers to the database when it is
loaded
•Valid State: A state that satisfies the structure and
constraints of the database.
•Distinction
• The database schema changes very infrequently. The database state
changes every time the database is updated.
• Schema is also called intension, whereas state is called extension.

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Three-Schema Architecture
Proposed to support DBMS characteristics of:

• Self describing nature

• Program-data and operation independence.
• Support of multiple views of the data.

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Slide 2-8
Three-Schema Architecture
•Defines DBMS schemas at three levels:
• Internal schema at the internal level to describe physical
storage structures and access paths. Typically uses a
physical data model.
• Conceptual schema at the conceptual level to describe
the structure and constraints for the whole database for
a community of users. Uses a conceptual or an
implementation data model.
• External schemas at the external level to describe the
various user views. Usually uses the same data model as
the conceptual level.

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Data Independence
•Logical Data Independence: The capacity to
change the conceptual schema without having to
change the external schemas and their application
programs.
•Physical Data Independence: The capacity to
change the internal schema without having to
change the conceptual schema.

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 DBMS Languages
•Data Definition Language (DDL): Used by the DBA
and database designers to specify the conceptual
schema of a database. In many DBMSs, the DDL is
also used to define internal and external schemas
(views). In some DBMSs, separate storage
definition language (SDL) and view definition
language (VDL) are used to define internal and
external schemas.

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DBMS Languages
•Data Manipulation Language (DML): Used to
specify database retrievals and updates.
• DML commands (data sublanguage) can be
embedded in a general-purpose programming
language (host language), such as COBOL, C or an
Assembly Language.
• Alternatively, stand-alone DML commands can
be applied directly (query language).

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DBMS Languages

•High Level or Non-procedural Languages: e.g.,

SQL, are set-oriented and specify what data to
retrieve than how to retrieve. Also called
declarative languages.
•Low Level or Procedural Languages: record-at-a-
time; they specify how to retrieve data and include
constructs such as looping.

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 DBMS Interfaces
•Stand-alone query language interfaces.
•Programmer interfaces for embedding DML in
programming languages:
• Pre-compiler Approach
• Procedure (Subroutine) Call Approach
•User-friendly interfaces:
• Menu-based, popular for browsing on the web
• Forms-based, designed for naïve users
• Graphics-based (Point and Click, Drag and Drop etc.)
• Natural language: requests in written English
• Combinations of the above

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Other DBMS Interfaces
• Speech as Input (?) and Output
• Web Browser as an interface
• Parametric interfaces (e.g., bank tellers) using
function keys.
• Interfaces for the DBA:
• Creating accounts, granting authorizations
• Setting system parameters
• Changing schemas or access path

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The database system environment
DBMS Component Module

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Database System Utilities
•To perform certain functions such as:
• Loading data stored in files into a database. Includes data
conversion tools.
• Backing up the database periodically on tape.
• Reorganizing database file structures.
• Report generation utilities.
• Performance monitoring utilities.
• Other functions, such as sorting, user monitoring, data
compression, etc.

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Other Tools
•Data dictionary / repository:
• Used to store schema descriptions and other information such as
design decisions, application program descriptions, user
information, usage standards, etc.
• Active data dictionary is accessed by DBMS software and
users/DBA.
• Passive data dictionary is accessed by users/DBA only.
• Application Development Environments and CASE
(computer-aided software engineering) tools:
• Examples – Power builder (Sybase), Builder (Borland)

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Centralized and Client-Server
Architectures
•Centralized DBMS: combines everything into single system including-
DBMS software, hardware, application programs and user interface
processing software.

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Basic Client-Server
Architectures
•Specialized Servers with Specialized functions
•Clients
•DBMS Server

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Specialized Servers with
Specialized functions:
•File Servers
•Printer Servers
•Web Servers
•E-mail Servers

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Clients:
•Provide appropriate interfaces and a client-version
of the system to access and utilize the server
resources.
•Clients maybe diskless machines or PCs or
Workstations with disks with only the client
software installed.
•Connected to the servers via some form of a
network.
(LAN: local area network, wireless network,
etc.)

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DBMS Server
•Provides database query and transaction services to the clients
•Sometimes called query and transaction servers

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Two Tier Client-Server
Architecture
•User Interface Programs and Application Programs run on the client
side
•Interface called ODBC (Open Database Connectivity – see Ch 9)
provides an Application program interface (API) allow client side
programs to call the DBMS. Most DBMS vendors provide ODBC drivers.

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Two Tier Client-Server
Architecture
•A client program may connect to several DBMSs.
•Other variations of clients are possible: e.g., in
some DBMSs, more functionality is transferred to
clients including data dictionary functions,
optimization and recovery across multiple servers,
etc. In such situations the server may be called the
Data Server.

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 Three Tier Client-Server
Architecture
•Common for Web applications
•Intermediate Layer called Application Server or Web
Server:
• stores the web connectivity software and the rules and business
logic (constraints) part of the application used to access the right
amount of data from the database server
• acts like a conduit for sending partially processed data between the
database server and the client.
•Additional Features- Security:
• encrypt the data at the server before transmission
• decrypt data at the client
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Classification of DBMSs
•Based on the data model used:
• Traditional: Relational, Network, Hierarchical.
• Emerging: Object-oriented, Object-relational.

•Other classifications:
• Single-user (typically used with micro- computers) vs. multi-user (most
DBMSs).
• Centralized (uses a single computer with one database) vs. distributed (uses
multiple computers, multiple databases)

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Classification of DBMSs
Distributed Database Systems have now come to be known as client
server based database systems because they do not support a totally
distributed environment, but rather a set of database servers
supporting a set of clients.

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Variations of Distributed
Environments:
•Homogeneous DDBMS
•Heterogeneous DDBMS
•Federated or Multidatabase Systems

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