Application Layer

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Figure 25-1

Comparison between OSI and TCP/IP

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Figure 25-2

Client-Server Model

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 Client-Server Model
•The device requesting the information is called a client.
•The device responding to the request is called a server.
•Client and server processes are considered to be in the
application layer.
•The client initiates the exchange by requesting data from the
server.
•The server responds by sending one or more streams of data
to the client.
•Application layer protocols describe the format of the
requests and responses between clients and servers.The
contents of the data exchange will depend of the application
in use.

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 Domain Name Service

•While IP addresses are crucial for network communication,

they are not easy to memorize. Domain names are created to
make server addresses more user- friendly.
•Domain names such as are user-friendly addresses associated
with the IP address of a specific server. However, computers
still need the actual numeric address before they can
communicate.
•The DNS protocol allows for the dynamic translation of a
domain name into the correct IP address.

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 DNS Hierarchy
•The DNS protocol uses a hierarchical system, with the
root at the top and branches below. The naming structure
is broken down into small, manageable zones.
•Each DNS server is only responsible for managing
name-to-IP mappings for that small portion of the DNS
structure.Requests for zones not stored in a specific DNS
server are forwarded to other servers for translation.
•Top-level domains represent either the type of domain or
the country of origin. Examples of top-level domains
are: .com - a business or industry.org - a non-profit
organization.au - Australia.co - Colombia

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Figure 25-27

URL

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Figure 25-3

DNS in the Internet

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Figure 25-4

Generic Domains

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Figure 25-5

Country Domains

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Figure 25-6
Inverse Domain
The inverse domain is used to map an address
to a name. if a server receives a request from a
client and this server has only the ip addresses
of the clients in its list then the server needs to
find out if this client is on its authorized client
list.
In order to determine if the client is on the
authorized client list, server asks its resolver to
query to the DNS server to map an address to
name. And this type of queries are called
inverse query

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Figure 25-11

SMTP Concept

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Figure 25-12

UAs and MTs

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Figure 25-14

Mail Gateways

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Figure 25-16
The Entire E-mail System

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Figure 25-13

Relay MTAs

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Figure 25-15

E-mail Address

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 Q What is SMTP and which are the default SMTP ports

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is the standard

protocol for sending emails across the Internet.

By default, the SMTP protocol works on three ports:

•Port 25 – this is the default SMTP non-encrypted port;

•Port 2525 – this port is opened on all SiteGround servers
in case port 25 is filtered (by your ISP for example) and
you want to send non-encrypted emails with SMTP;
•Port 465 – this is the port used if you want to send
messages using SMTP securely.

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 Q. What is POP3 and which are the default POP3 ports
Post Office Protocol version 3 (POP3) is a standard mail
protocol used to receive emails from a remote server to
a local email client. POP3 allows us to download email
messages on our local computer and read them even
when we are offline. Note, that when we use POP3 to
connect to our email account, messages are downloaded
locally and removed from the email server. This means
that if you access your account from multiple locations,
that may not be the best option for you. On the other
hand, if you use POP3, your messages are stored on your
local computer, which reduces the space your email
account uses on your web server.
By default, the POP3 protocol works on two ports:
•Port 110 – this is the default POP3 non-encrypted port;
•Port 995 – this is the port you need to use if you want to
connect using POP3 securely.
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 QWhat is IMAP and which are the default IMAP ports

The Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) is a mail

protocol used for accessing email on a remote web
server from a local client. IMAP and POP3 are the two
most commonly used Internet mail protocols
for retrieving emails. Both protocols are supported by
all modern email clients and web servers.
While the POP3 protocol assumes that your email is
being accessed only from one application, IMAP allows
simultaneous access by multiple clients. This is why
IMAP is more suitable for you if you’re going to access
your email from different locations or if your messages
are managed by multiple users.
By default, the IMAP protocol works on two ports:
•Port 143 – this is the default IMAP non-encrypted port;
•Port 993 – this is the port you need to use if you want
to connect using IMAP securely.
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 MIME represents Multi-Purpose Internet Mail
Extensions. It is a development to the Internet email
protocol that enables its users to exchange several kinds
of data files over the Internet, including images, audio,
and video.
The MIME is required if the text in character sets other
than the American Standard Code for Information
Interchange (ASCII). Virtually, all human-written Internet
email and a fairly large proportion of automated email is
transmitted via Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) in
MIME format.
MIME was designed mainly for SMTP, but the content
types defined by MIME standards are important also in
communication protocols outside of email, such as
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).

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 FTP
•It was developed to allow the transfer of files over the
network.
•An FTP client is an application that runs on a client
computer used to push and pull data from an FTP
server.
•FTP requires two connections between the client and
the server: one connection for commands and replies
and another connection for the actual file transfer.
•The client initiates and establishes the first connection
to the server for control traffic on TCP port 21.
•The client then establishes the second connection to
the server for the actual data transfer on TCP port 20.
•The client can download (pull) data from the server or
upload (push) data to the server.
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Figure 25-10

FTP

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 TELNET stands for TErminaL NETwork.

It is a type of protocol that enables one computer to connect

to local computer. It is a used as a standard TCP/IP protocol
for virtual terminal service which is given by ISO. Computer
which starts connection known as the local computer.
Computer which is being connected to i.e. which accepts the
connection known as remote computer. When the
connection is established between local and remote computer.
During telnet operation whatever that is being performed on
the remote computer will be displayed by local computer.
Telnet operates on client/server principle. Local computer
uses telnet client program and the remote computers uses
telnet server program.

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Figure 25-19
SNMP Concept

•Manager runs SNMP client program.

•Agent, a managed station is a router that runs SNMP server program.
•Management is achieved through simple interaction between manager and agent.
•Agent:-Keeps performance information in a database.
• Manager - has access to values in database.
• Router (agent) can store no. of packets received and forwarded.
•Manager can fetch and compare the values of these two variables to see if router is
congested or not.
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Figure 25-20

Internet Management Components- other protocols

SMI – Structure of management information function is to name objects , to define

the type of data that can be stored in an object, to show how to encode data for
Transmission over the network
MIB – Management Information Base –Each agent has its own MIB-a collection
of all objects the manager can manage.

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Figure 25-21

MIB

Objects in MIB are categorized under eight different groups :

System, interface, address translation, ip, icmp, tcp, udp, egp.

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Figure 25-22
SNMP Messages

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 SNMP Messages

•GetRequest message is sent from manager(client) to the agent (server) to retrieve

The value of a variable

•GetNextRequest message is sent from the manager to the agent to retrieve the
Value of a variable. The retrieved value is the value of the object following the
Defined object in the message. It is mostly used to retrieve the values of entries
In a table.

•GetResponse message is sent from an agent to a manager in response to

GetRequest and GetNextRequest. It contains the value of variable requested
By manager.

•SetRequest message is sent from manager to agent to set a value in a variable.

•Trap message is sent from the agent to manager to report an event.e.g. if the agent
Is rebooted, it informs the manager and reports the time of booting.

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