Seminar on

Airport – Lay out & its Components

Date:20/03/2021

By
Shreyas.K
Asst Professor
Dept of Civil Engineering
Dr AIT
Bengaluru-560056
 Development of Air Transport-

• Towards 1903, when the first successful flight was made by Wilbur and Orville Wright.
• In 1909, French pilot named Louis Bleriot crossed the English Channel to England. That
was from France towards the England side.
• In 1911, the post was carried that is the postage was carried by the air in India from
Allahabad to Naini.
• In 1912, the flight between Delhi and Karachi was operated.
• In 1927, Civil Aviation Department was established, so as to control the flights from
different places.
• In 1929, there was a regular air service between Karachi and Delhi.
• In 1932, Tata Airways limited was set up, that was the private airways.
• In 1933, the Indian Transcontinental Airways Limited was formed, so as to provide a
connectivity between the continents.
• In 1994, Airport Authority of India was formed by merging International Airport
Authority of India and National Airports Authority.
Advantages
•Improve the accessibility to otherwise inaccessible areas.
•Provides a continuous connectivity over land and water.
•In the case of emergency conditions, air transportation is the best way which can provide
the relief.
•Because of its speed it saves the productive time.
•It also leads to improve in the tourism facilities.

Disadvantages
•It requires heavy funds for operation & maintenance.
•Operations are highly dependent on the weather conditions.
•Further, it requires highly sophisticated machinery.
•Specific demarcation of flight paths and territories is essential.
 International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO)-
• This was established in 1994, Its headquarters is in Montreal, Canada.
• The assembly is composed of representatives from all contracting states and is the sovereign
body of ICAO.
• Council is the governing body which is elected by the assembly for a three year term and it is
composed of 36 states.
• Out of the total members or countries which are there as member of ICAO, these 36 are
elected to the council for a three years term.
• Secretariat is headed by a Secretary General and is divided into five main divisions and the
divisions are:
1.Air Navigation Bureau.
2.The Air Transport Bureau.
3. The Technical Cooperation Bureau.
4. The Legal Bureau.
5.The Bureau of Administration and Services.
 Aims & Objectives-
• To develop the principles and techniques of the international air navigation and to foster the
planning and development of international air transport.
• Encourage the art of aircraft design and operation for peaceful purposes that is related to the
manufacturing units, encourage development of airways, airports and air navigation facilities.
• Meet the needs of the people of the world for safe, regular, efficient and economical air
transport means try to make this facility to be a mass based facility as far as possible.
• To ensure that the rights of contracting states are fully respected and that every contracting
state has a fair opportunity to operate international airlines.
• There should not be a bias as far as the movements are concerned in air and provision of
facilities are concerned.
• Promote safety of flight in international air navigation, promote generally the development of all
aspects of international civil aeronautics.
 Strategic objectives -

•Safety to enhance global civil aviation safety, security - enhance global civil aviation
security.
•Environmental protection that is minimize the adverse effects of global civil aviation
on the environment.
• Efficiency so as to enhance the efficiency of aviation operations.
• Continuity to maintain the continuity of aviation operations and the rule of law that
is strengthen law governing international civil aviation.
 Classification of airports by ICAO
• The code element consists of a numeric and alphabetic designation.
• The code number 1 through 4 classify the length of the runway available.
• The code letters A through E classify the wingspan and outer main gear wheel
span for the aircraft for which the airport.

Airport Classification:
1.International Airports.
2.Custom Airports.
3.Model Airports.
4.Other Domestic Airports.
5.Civil Enclaves in Defence Airports.
 Federal aviation administration (FAA)-

Functions-
•Encourages the establishment of civil airways, landing areas and other air facilities.
•It designates federal airways and acquires, establishes, operates and conducts research
and development and maintains air navigation facilities along such airways.
•It is completely involved in all of the processes which are required for the provision of
facilities starting from its planning to its execution and implementation.
•It undertakes or supervise technical development work in the field of aeronautics and the
development of aeronautical facilities.
•It prescribes and enforces the civil air regulations for safety standards and includes the
effectuation of safety standards, rules and regulations.
 Airport Authority of India(AAI)-
It came into existance on 1st April, 1995 by merging the two agencies namely
National Airport Authority and International Airport Authority of India.

Functions-
•they control and manage Indian air space extending beyond the territorial limits of
the country.
•Design, development, operation and maintenance of International and Domestic
airports and civil enclaves, construction, modification and management of passenger
terminals, development and management of cargo terminals at International and
Domestic airports.
•Expansion and strengthening of operation area viz. runways, aprons, taxiway, etc.,
which are the features of the geometrics or the facilities to be provided on airports.
•Provision of visual aids for safe navigation of the aircrafts on the airports and the
provision of communication and navigational aids.
 Director General of Civil Aviation (DGCA)-
It is basically an attached office of Ministry of Civil Aviation and this is the regulating
body in the field of civil aviation primarily dealing with safety issues.
The headquarters are located in New Delhi, with regional offices being provided in
different parts of the country that is India.

Functions:
•Statutory authority responsible for laying down standards and their implementation
which covers airworthiness, safety and operation of aircraft, flight crew standards and
training, air transport operations.
•Licensing of flight crew, aircraft engineers and civil aerodromes, the certification of
aircraft operators.
•Investigation into incidents and minor accidents, regulation and control of air
transport operations, formulation of aviation legislation, research and development
activities in the field of civil aviation.
 Objectives of Civil Aviation Ministry-

• To ensure aviation safety, security.

• Effective regulation of air transport in the country in the liberalized environment.
•Safe, efficient, reliable and widespread quality air transport services are provided at
reasonable prices.
•Flexibility to adapt to changing needs and circumstances.
•To provide all players a level-playing field.
•Encourage Private participation.
•Encourage Trade, tourism and overall economic activity and growth.
• Security of civil aviation operations is ensured through appropriate systems, policies,
and practices.
 The elements in a typical airport system planning process

•Exploration of issues that impact aviation in the study area.

•Inventory of the current system.
•Identification of air transportation needs.
•Forecast of system demand.
•Consideration of alternative airport systems.
•Definition of airport roles and policy strategies.
•Recommendation of system changes, funding strategies, and airport development.
•Preparation of an implementation plan.
 Airport Master Plan

•Developing the physical facilities of an airport & Developing land on and adjacent to the
airport.
•Determining the environmental effects of airport construction and operations &
Establishing access requirements.
•Establishing the technical, economic and financial feasibility of proposed developments
through a thorough investigation of alternative concepts.
•Establishing a schedule of priorities and phasing for the improvements proposed in the
Plan.
•Establishing an achievable financial plan to support the implementation schedule.
•Establishing a continuing planning process which will monitor conditions and adjust
plan.
 Objectives
•The orderly and timely development of a system of airports adequate to meet present
and future aviation needs and to promote the desired pattern of regional growth relative
to industrial, employment, social, environmental, and recreational goals.
•The development of aviation to meet its role in a balanced and multimodal
transportation system to foster the overall goals of the area as reflected in the
transportation system plan and comprehensive development plan.
•The protection and enhancement of the environment through the location and
expansion of aviation facilities in a manner which avoids ecological and environmental
impairment.
•The provision of the framework within which specific airport programs may be
developed consistent with the short- and long-range airport system requirements.
•The implementation of land-use and airspace plans which optimize these resources in an
often constrained environment.
•The development of long-range fiscal plans and the establishment of priorities for
airport financing within the governmental budgeting process.
 Master plan report
•Master plan vision, goals, and objectives—
Establishes the vision and overarching goals for the master plan as well as objectives that
will guide the planning process
•Inventory of existing conditions—
Provides an overview of the airport‘s history, role in the region and nation, growth and
development over time, description of its physical assets
•Forecast of aviation demand—
Future levels of aircraft operations, number of passengers, and volume of cargo are
forecasted for short, intermediate, and long-range time periods.
Typically forecasts are made for 5, 10, and 20 years on both annual as well daily and busiest
hours of the day.
•Demand/capacity analysis and facility requirements—
Compares the future demand with the existing capacity of each airport component and
identifies the facility requirements necessary to accommodate the demand.
• Alternatives development—
Identifies, refines, and evaluates a range of alternatives for accommodating facility
requirements.
• Preferred development plan—
Identifies, describes, and defines the alternative that best achieves the master plan goals
and objectives.
• Implementation plan—
Provides a comprehensive plan for the implementation of the preferred development
plan, including the definition of projects, construction sequence and timeline, cost
estimates, and financial plan.
• Environmental overview—
Provides an overview of the anticipated environmental impacts associated with the
preferred development plan in order to understand the severity and to help expedite
subsequent environmental processing at the project specific stage.
• Airport plans package—
Documents that show the existing as well as planned modifications are prepared and
the more notable is the airport layout plan (ALP).
It comprises drawings that include the airfield physical facilities, obstruction clearance
and runway approach profiles.
• Stakeholder and public involvement—
Documents the coordination efforts that occur among the stakeholders throughout the
study.
 Major components of airport

(i) Airport Landing Area (ii) Airport Terminal Area

Landing area includes approach zone and clear zone. In these zones, airport zoning
regulations are under effective enforcement.
The terminal area includes, terminal and operational buildings, vehicle parking area and
service hangars.

•The elements of an airport terminal area are:

•Apron.
•Terminal building.
•Hangars.
•Motor Vehicles parking.
 Terminal buildings
Primary function of an airport building:
•To accommodate terminal and operational activities, control towers, weather bureau, and
administrative block and passenger facilities.
•Location of building area with respect to runway and taxiway should provide adequate space
for future expansion of all structures.
Planning concept of terminal buildings:
Terminal buildings in commercial airports may be based on planning concept of centralization
or decentralization.
•Centralized: all passengers, baggages and cargos are formulated through a central building.
•Decentralized: passengers and baggages arrive at a point near departing planes.
Principles of passenger flow:
•Passengers walking distance should not be more than 180m from the surface transportation
to their boarding in an aircraft.
•Maximum distance carrying baggage – 25m with Maximum check-in time 3minutes.
 Passenger facilities and services

General facilities provided at airports:

•Economic lounges to sit comfortably.
•Electronic lockers & Prayer room.
•Swimming facilities.
•Television, children playground.
• Departure and arrival hall & Smoking rooms.
•Inter-terminal transport.
Services required at airports:
•Money changers.
•Medical services.
•Lost and found.
•Shopping malls.
 Layout of an air port-
Mainly divided into
Air field & Terminal area.
•Flight support area - air traffic control, navigational aids, fuelling tanks for air craft, cargo
houses etc
Air field is again divided into Landing strip that consists of
•Runway – strip provided for landing & take off shoulders are provided on either side of
runway to serve as safety zones.
•shoulders & stop ways - provided at the end of the run way to accommodate an aircraft
that over shoots the run off during landing or take off.
•Taxi ways - are the strip connecting run way with parking apron.
•Apron - are provided for parking the aeroplanes for boarding & de boarding passengers.
•Terminal area consists of
•Departure Gates - are openings at the terminal buildings through which passengers
enter or leave the building on arrival of aircraft in the apron.
Apron
should be adequate to permit expeditious handling of airport traffic. Apron in
subjected to higher stresses than a runway due to slow moving or stationary position of
aircrafts. Aprons should be stronger enough to withstand intended traffic.

Airports can be grouped into different patterns adjacent to terminal buildings:

Frontal-system
OpenApron-System
Finger-system
Satellite-system
 Runways

•A runway is a rectangular area on the airport surface prepared for the take off and
landing of aircraft.
•An airport may have one runway or several runways which are sited, oriented, and
configured in a manner to provide for the safe and efficient use of the airport under a
variety of conditions.
•Several of the factors which affect the location, orientation, and number of runways at
an airport include local weather conditions, particularly wind distribution and visibility,
the topography of the airport and surrounding area.
•The type and amount of air traffic to be serviced at the airport, aircraft performance
requirements, and aircraft noise.
 Runway Configurations
•The term ―runway configuration refers to the number and relative orientations of
one or more runways on an airfield.
The basic configurations are
•Single runways.
•parallel runways.
•intersecting runways.
• open-V runways.
 Site selection for air port
Regional plan - site selected should fit well in to the regional plan there by forming it an
integral part of national network of an airport.
Air port use - Selection of site depends on use of airport i.e for civilian or for military
operations. In case of emergency civilian airports are taken over by defence. There fore
airport site should be such that it provides natural protection from air raids.
Proximity to other airports –
•Site selected should be at a considerable distance from existing air ports so that air craft
landing in one air port does not interfere with the movement of air craft at other air port.
•For small air port serving small general aviation aircraft under (Visual flight rules) VFR
conditions = 3.2 kms
•For air port serving big air crafts under VFR conditions = 6.4 kms
•For air port operating piston engine air craft under Instrument flight rules (IFR) condition
= 25.6 kms
•For air craft operating jet engines under IFR conditons = 160 kms
Ground accessibility – Air line passenger is more concerned with his door to door time
rather than actual time in air travel. The time required to reach an air port in a passenger
car from business or residential centres should normally not exceed 30 mins.

Topography - A raised ground like hill top is usually considered as an ideal site for an air
port because-
1. Less obstruction in approach zones & turning zones.
2. Natural drainage, low land may result in flooding.
3. More uniform wind.
4. Better visibility due to less fog.
Obstructions-
When air craft is landing or take off it loses or gains altitude very slowly as compared to
forward speed, there fore long clearance areas are provided on either side of run way
known as approach areas over which air craft can safely loose or gain altitude.
Obstructions may consists of fences, trees, pole lines, buildings & other natural or man
made objects.
Visibility-
Poor visibility lowers the traffic capacity of the air port. There fore site selected should
be free from visibility reducing conditions such as fog, smoke & haze.
Wind-
Run way is oriented such that landing & take off is done by heading into the wind. Wind
data i.e direction, duration & intensity of wind should be collected over a minimum
period of 10 years this help in orientation of run way.
Noise nuisance-
Landing & take off paths of the air crafts pass over the land which is free from residential
or industrial development. Some times buffer zone may have to be provided between
take off end of a run way & near by residential areas.
Grading, drainage & soil characteristics-
Sites with high water tables which may require costly sub soil drainage should be
avoided. Cost of grading & drainage can often be reduced by selecting a site favourable
soil characteristics.
Future development-
Air traffic volume will continue to increase in future, more number of run ways have
to be provided for an increased traffic.

Availability of utilities from town-

Basic facilities like water supply, sewer, telephone, electricity etc. in selection of site
availability of these utilities from the town should be given into considerations.

Economic considerations-
Cost estimate should be prepared which include land cost, clearing & grading of land,
drainage, removal of hazards, paving, turfing, lighting, construction of buildings,
access roads etc.
 Air craft characteristics
• Minimum Turning Radius:
To decide radius of taxiway, position of Aircraft in loading Aprons and Hangars.
• Minimum Circling Radius:
Radius required by the Aircraft to take a turn in air.
Helps in spacing the Airports.
Close spacing reduces capacity of Airport.
• Aircraft Weight:
Helps in designing the runway, taxiway, aprons etc.
Length of runway depends on landing and take-off distance which depends on weight.
• Type of Propulsion:
The word propulsion is used to indicate type of engine used in Aircraft & Size of Aircraft,
circling radius, speed, weight carrying capacity, noise etc depend on propulsion.
Based on propulsion Aircrafts are classified as piston engine Aircraft, Turbo prop, Turbo
jet, Ram jet, Rocket etc.
• Size of Aircraft:
Involves wing span, fuselage length, height, distance between main gears (Gear
tread), wheel base, Tail width.
Wingspan decides width of taxiway, Aprons, hangers etc.
Length decides widening of taxiway on curves.
Height, the height of hangar gate, other installations.
• Speed of Aircraft:
Determines capacity of Airport.
Demands more facilities.
Transport Aircrafts are subsonic (< speed of sound).
• Aircraft fuel spillage:
Usually occur in loading aprons and hangars.
Causes distress to pavement.
Reduces pavement friction.
• Capacity of Aircraft:
Indicates space for passengers, baggage, cargo and fuel.
Helps in determining facilities in terminal building.
• Jet blast:
Release of hot exhaust at high speed.
Bituminous pavements are adversely affected
by the heat.
Blast fences are used to reduce the effect.
Fences height = 2.5 to 3 m and curved in
Shape.
• Noise Nuisance:
Aircrafts make lot of noise during landing and takeoff.
As far as possible Airport to be located away from residential areas.
 Runway Orientation

• The orientation of a runway is defined by the direction, relative to magnetic north,

of the operations performed by aircraft on the runway.
• Typically, but not always, runways are oriented in such a manner that they may be
used in either direction.
• It is less preferred to orient a runway in such a way that operating in one direction
is precluded, normally due to nearby obstacles.
• The FAA recommends that runways should be oriented so that aircraft may be
landed at least 95 percent of the time with allowable crosswind components not
exceeding specified limits.
• Based upon the airport reference code associated with the critical aircraft that has
the shortest wingspan or slowest approach speed.
• When the wind coverage is less than 95 percent a crosswind runway is
recommended.
 Surface Wind

•Wind speed and direction at an airport also have a significance on runway length
requirements.
•Simply, the greater the headwind the shorter the runway length required, and the
greater the tailwind the longer the runway required.
•Further, the presence of crosswinds will also increase the amount of runway
required for take off and landing.
•From the perspective of the planner, it is often estimated that for every 5 km of
headwind, required runway length is reduced by approximately 3 percent and for
every 7 km of tailwind, runway length requirements increase by approximately 7
percent.
 Orientation of runway

•Orientation is positioning of runways. Orientation of a runway is usually along

prevailing wind direction.
•This facilitates landing and takes off operations in 'head wind. In other words,
landing and take off operations take place in directions
•opposite to the prevailing wind. When landing operations take place against wind
direction, the head wind provides a braking effect to aircraft and they come to a stop
in a smaller length of runway.
•Similarly, when aircrafts take off, the head wind provides greater lift on Wings of
aircraft and enables it to rise above the ground within a shorter length of runway.
•Wind data in terms of direction, duration and intensity for the selected site is
collected for 5t o 10 years.
 Cross wind component
•Centre line of a runway is oriented along prevailing wind direction. However, it is not possible to obtain the
direction of wind along the centre line of a runway throughout a year on some days of a year and few hours of a
day, wind may blow making certain angle with a centre line of the runway.

•If an angle between the centre line of the runway and

direction of wind is 0, the component along the direction
of a runway is V cos and the component normal to the
runway is V sine, where 'V' is the wind velocity.
•The normal component of the wind is termed as a cross
wind component. The cross wind component is very
dangerous and may interrupt safe landing and take off
operations.
Calmperiod
Percentage of time in a year during which wind
intensity is less than minimum intensity
is termed as calm period. It is assumed that during
calm period, intensity of wind is
negligible and do not interfere with landing and
take off operations.
 Wind rose diagram —Type I
Determination of 'Orientation of Runway:

•Past wind data for a selected site of an airport is collected for as

many years as possible & Data should be collected at least for 5 years
and preferably for 10 years.
•Average data is obtained with sufficient accuracy.
•Since wind data may vary considerably from site to site, observations
should have been taken at or near a site selected as far as possible.

Direction & Duration:

Radial lines indicate wind directions. Average wind data are obtained
for 16 directions as indicated.
It is assumed that wind may blow from any point within 22.5". Each
circle in below represent its duration of wind.
 Best orientation of the runway:
Values of durations from wind data are marked In respective directions. All
plotted points are joined in straight lines.
The best orientation of a runway is usually along the
direction of the longes line in wind rose diagram.

Wind coverage:
It is assumed that deviation of direction
permissible is up to 11.5 Percentage of time during
which a runway can be used for
landing and take off operations.
 Wind rose diagram — Type II

Wind data used for type I is used for type ii also.

Each circle represents wind intensity to scale.
Radial lines indicate wind directions Value entered in each segment represent
percentage of time in a year during which wind having a particular intensity blows from
the respective direction.
Procedure to determine the orientation:
Draw three parallel lines on a transparent paper at an equal distance apart. The
distance between parallel lines is equal to permissible cross wind component.
it is drawn to the scale with which the wind rose diagram is drawn. Cross wind
component in the example is 25 km/ h.
Place a transparent paper over the wind rose diagram in such a way that its centre lies
over the central line of the Wind Rose diagram.
• With the centre of wind rose, rotate the tracing paper and place it in such a
position that the sum of all values of duration of wind, bound by two outer parallel
lines has a maximum value.
• Thus, the direction indicated by the
central line is the orientation of the runway. Wind coverage
is calculated by adding up all percentages of duration
shown in segments.
• The percentage of duration is assumed to be equally
distributed over the entire area
of segment.
• If outer parallel lines of transparent strip cross a segment,
proportional value is assessed and added.
 Principal imaginary surfaces
•Primary surface. The primary surface is a surface longitudinally centered on a
runway. When the runway is paved, the primary surface extends 200 ft beyond each
end of the runway.
When the runway is unpaved, the primary surface coincides with each end of the
runway. The elevation of the primary surface is the same as the elevation of the
nearest point on the runway center line.
•Horizontal surface. The horizontal surface is a horizontal plane 150 ft above the
established airport elevation, the perimeter of which is constructed by swinging arcs
of specified radii from the center of each end of the primary surface of each runway
and connecting each arcs by lines tangent to those arcs.

•Conical surface. The conical surface is a surface extending outward and upward from
the periphery of the horizontal surface at a slope of 20 horizontal to 1 vertical for a
horizontal distance of 4000 ft.
• Approach surface. The approach surface is a surface longitudinally centered on the
extended runway center line and extending outward and upward from each end of a
runway at a designated slope based upon the type of available or planned approach
to the runway.
• Transitional surface. Transitional surfaces extend outward and upward at right
angles to the runway centerline plus the runway centerline extended at a slope of 7
to 1 from the sides of the primary surface up to the horizontal surface and from the
sides of the approach surfaces.
• The width of the transitional surface provided from each edge of the approach
surface is 5000 ft.
 Run way design
The minimum length of runway required at an airport for safe landing and take off
operations is known as basic runway length.
The basic runway length is estimated under the following two conditions.
1. A set of assumptions.
2. Three aircraft operational conditions like:
 Normal landing case.
 Normal Take off case.
 Engine Failure Case.
The FAA‘s procedure for estimating runway length is based on the following data:
•Designation of a critical aircraft.
•The maximum take off weight of the critical aircraft at the airport.
•The airport elevation.
•The mean daily maximum temperature for the hottest month at the airport.
•The maximum different in elevation along the runway center line.
• For jet engine aircraft all three cases are considered but for piston engine air craft first and third case are usually
considered.
• The landing case require that aircraft should come to stop within 60% of the landing distance. The full strength
pavement is provided for entire landing distance.
• The normal take off requires a clear way which is an area beyond the runway and is alignment with the centre
line of the runway.
• The width of the clear way is not less than 150m ( 500 ft) and is kept free from obstruction.
• The clearway ground area any object should not protrude a plane upward at a slope of 1.25% from the runway
end.
• Engine failure case may require either a clearway or a stop way or both. Stop way is defined as the area beyond
runway and centrally located in alignment with the centreline of the runway.
• It is used for decelerating the aircraft to stop during aborted take off.
• The strength of the stop way should be sufficient to carry the weight of the aircraft without casing any structural
damage.
 Assumptions

• The airport is located at mean sea level (MSL).

• The airport temperature is standard ie. 15 0 C.
• The runway is level in the longitudinal direction.
• No wind blows on the runway.
• No wind blows enroute.
• The enroute temperature is standard ie. 15 0 C.
• The aircraft is loaded to its maximum capacity.
 Normal Landing Case
Here the minimum length of runway required is such that a flight landing
from a height of 15 m lands and come to stop within 60% of the runway
length.
 Normal Take off Case
Here the minimum length of runway required is such that a flight taking off
starts, accelerates and lifts off to a height of 10.5m.
 Engine Failure Case
Here the minimum length of runway required is such that if the engine fails during its
taking off while the flight is still on the runway can decelerate and comes to a safe stop
without taking off.
It is also such that if the engine fails soon after its take off, the flight is able to go for a
normal take off, turns in the air, comes back and safely lands.
 Correction for elevation, temperature and gradient:
•Airports are constructed in different elevation different atmospheric temperature and gradient, in contrast to
the assumption made for basic runway length. Therefore correction required for changes in each components.
Correction in elevation: All other things being equal, the higher the field elevation of the airport, results the less
dense the atmosphere, requiring longer runway lengths for the aircraft to get to the appropriate groundspeed to
achieve sufficient lift for take off.
•For airports at elevation above sea level, the design runway length is 300 ft plus 0.03 ft for every foot above sea
level. ICAO recommends the basic runway length should increase at rate of 7% per 100 m rise in elevation over
MSL.
Correction in temperature: With rise of reference temperature same effect is there as that of elevation.
•The airport reference temperature defined as monthly mean of average daily temperature (Ta) for the hottest
month of the year plus one third the difference of this temperature and monthly mean of the maximum daily
temperature(Tw) for same month of the year.
•Reference Temperature = Ta + (Tw – Ta)/3 ICAO recommends the basic runway length
Correction for gradient: Steeper gradient require greater consummation of energy
and longer length of runway to attain the desired speed.
•ICAO does not recommend any correction.
•FAA recommend after correction for elevation and temperature a further increase in
runway length at 20% for every 1 percent effective gradient.
•ICAO recommends the basic runway length after have been corrected for elevation,
should further increase at the rate of 1% for every 10C increase of reference
temperature.
• If both correction increases more than 35% ICAO recommended specific site study
should be conducted.
 Runway System Geometric Specifications
•The runway system at an airport consists of the structural pavement, the shoulders,
the blast pad, the runway safety area, various obstruction-free surfaces, and the
runway protection zone.
•The runway structural pavement supports the
aircraft with respect to structural load,
maneuverability, control, stability, and other
operational and dimensional criteria.
•The shoulder adjacent to the edges of the
structural pavement resists jet blast erosion and
accommodates maintenance and emergency
equipment.
• The blast pad is an area designed to prevent erosion
of the surfaces adjacent to the ends of runways due to jet blast or propeller wash.
The runway safety area (RSA): is an area surrounding the runway prepared or suitable
for reducing the risk of damage to aircraft in the event of an undershoot, overshoot, or
excursion from the runway.
•ICAO refers to an area similar to the runway safety area as the runway strip and the
runway end safety area.
The runway object-free area (OFA): is defined
by the FAA as a two-dimensional ground area
surrounding the runway which must be clear of
parked aircraft and objects other than those
whose location is fixed by function.
The runway obstacle-free zone (OFZ): is a defined volume of airspace centered above
the runway which supports the transition between ground and airborne operations.
• The FAA specifies this as the airspace above a surface whose elevation is the same
as that of the nearest point on the runway centerline and extending 200 ft beyond
each end of the runway.

The inner approach obstacle-free zone: which applies only to runways with approach
lighting systems, is the airspace above a surface centered on the extended runway
center line beginning 200 ft beyond the runway threshold at the same elevation as
the runway threshold and extending 200 ft beyond the last light unit on the
approach lighting system.
 Importance of air port drainage

• Improper sub-surface drainage may weaken the subgrade and thus reduce the
load bearing capacity of the soil resulting in distress to pavements.
• Good drainage arrangements increases the efficiency of all the pavements.
• Good drainage increases the efficiency of the airport by providing all weather
service.
• Good drainage reduces the maintenance cost of an airport.
 Sight Distance and Longitudinal Profile

•The FAA requirement for sight distance on individual runways requires that the runway profile
permit any two points 5 ft above the runway center line to be mutually visible for the entire runway
length.
•If, however, the runway has a full length parallel taxiway, the runway profile may be such that an
unobstructed line of sight will exist from any point 5 ft above the runway center line to any other
point 5 ft above the runway centerline for one-half the runway length.
•The FAA recommends a clear line of sight between the ends of intersecting runways.
•The terrain must be graded and permanent objects designed and sited so that there will be an
unobstructed line of sight from any point 5 ft above one runway center line to any point 5 ft above
an intersecting runway center line within the runway visibility zone.
 Taxiways and Taxi lanes
•Taxiways are defined paths on the airfield surface which are established for the taxiing of aircraft and are intended
to provide a linkage between one part of the airfield and another.
•The term ―dual parallel taxiway refers
to two taxiways parallel to each other on
Which airplanes can taxi in opposite
directions.
•An apron taxiway is a taxiway located
usually on the periphery of an apron
intended to provide a through taxi route
across the apron.
•A taxilane is a portion of the aircraft parking area used for access between the taxiways and the aircraft parking
positions.
 Specifications
• A minimum of 3 percent for turf.
• A slope of 5 percent is recommended for a 10-ft width adjacent to the pavement
areas to promote drainage.
• For each 1 percent of grade change, Distance is multiplied by the sum of the
absolute grade changes in percent.
• The required separation between taxiways, between a taxiway and a taxilane, or
between a taxiway and a fixed or movable object requires a minimum wingtip
clearance of 0.2 times the wingspan of the most demanding aircraft in the airplane
design group plus 10 ft.
• This clearance provides a minimum taxiway centerline to a parallel taxiway
centerline or taxilane centerline separation of 1.2 times the wingspan of the most
demanding aircraft plus 10 ft, and between a taxiway centerline and a fixed or
movable object of 0.7 times the wingspan of the most demanding aircraft plus 10
ft.
• The FAA specifies that from any point on the taxiway centerline the difference in
elevation between that point and the corresponding point on a parallel runway,
taxiway, or apron edge is 1.5 percent of the shortest distance between the points.
• ICAO requires that the surface of the taxiway should be seen for a distance of 150 m
from a point 1.5 m above the taxiway for aerodrome code letter A runways, for a
distance of 200 m from a point 2 m above the taxiway.
• for aerodrome code letter B runways, and for a distance of 300 m from a point 3 m
above the taxiway for aerodrome code letter C, D, or E runways.
 Exit Taxiway Geometry
•The function of exit taxiways, or runway turnoffs as they are sometimes called, is to minimize runway
occupancy by landing aircraft.
•Exit taxiways can be placed at right angles to the runway or some other angle to the runway.
•When the angle is on the order of 30°, the term high-speed exit is often used to denote that it is designed
for higher speeds than other exit taxiway configurations.
Location of Exit Taxiways:
•The location of exit taxiways depends on the mix of aircraft, the approach and touchdown speeds, the
point of touchdown, the exit speed, the rate of deceleration, which in turn depends on the condition of the
pavement surface, that is, dry or wet, and the number of exits.
•While the rules for flying transport aircraft are relatively precise, certain amount of variability among pilots
is bound to occur especially in respect to braking force applied on the runway and the distance from runway
threshold to touchdown.
• The rapidity and the manner in which air traffic control can process arrivals is an
extremely important factor in establishing the location of exit taxiways.
• Visual aids assist the pilot on approach to an airport, as well as navigating around
an airfield and are essential elements of airport infrastructure.
• As such, these facilities require proper planning and precise design.
• These facilities may be divided into three categories: lighting, marking, and
signage.
• Lighting is further categorized as either approach lighting or surface lighting.
 Holding Aprons
•Holding aprons, holding pads, run-up pads, or holding bays as they are sometimes
called, are placed adjacent to the ends of runways.
•The areas are used as storage areas for aircraft prior to take off.
•They are designed so that one
aircraft can bypass another whenever this
is necessary.
•For piston-engine aircraft the holding
apron is an area where the aircraft
Instrument and engine operation can be
checked prior to take off.
•The holding apron also provides for a trailing aircraft to bypass a leading aircraft in
case the take off clearance of the latter must be delayed for one reason or another, or if
it experiences some malfunction.
 Airfield marking and signage
•Runway and taxiway pavement markings.
•Runway and taxiway guidance sign systems.
•Airfield lighting, marking, and signage facilities.

Functions:
•Ground to air visual information required during landing.
•The visual requirements for take off and landing.
•The visual guidance for taxiing.
 Runway and Taxiway Marking
•In order to aid pilots in guiding the aircraft on runways and taxiways, pavements are
marked with lines and numbers.
•These markings are of benefit primarily during the day and dusk. At night, lights are
used to guide pilots in landing and manoeuvring at the airport.
•White is used for all markings on
runways and yellow is used on taxiways and
aprons.
• Runway markings include runway designators, center lines, threshold markings, aiming points,
touchdown zone markings, and side stripes.
• Depending on the length and class of runway and the type of aircraft operations intended for use
on the runway, all or some of the above markings are required.

Runway Designators:
• The end of each runway is marked with a number, known as a runway designator, which
indicates the approximate magnetic azimuth (clockwise from magnetic north) of the runway in
the direction of operations.
• The marking is given to the nearest 10° with the last digit omitted.
• Thus a runway in the direction of an azimuth of 163° would be marked as runway 16 and this
runway would be in the approximate direction of south-south-east.
 Runway Threshold Markings
•Runway threshold markings identify to the pilot the beginning of the runway that is
safe and available for landing.
•Runway threshold markings begin 20 ft from the runway threshold itself.
•Runway threshold markings consist of two series of white stripes, each stripe 150 ft
in length and 5.75 ft in width, separated about the center line of the runway.
•On each side of the runway center line, a number of threshold marking stripes are
placed.
 Center line Markings
•Runway center line markings are white, located on the center line of the runway, and consist of a line of
uniformly spaced stripes and gaps.
•The stripes are 120 ft long and the gaps are 80 ft long.
•The minimum width of stripes is 12 in for visual runways, 18 in for non precision instrument runways, and 36
in for precision instrument runways.
•The purpose of the runway center line markings is to indicate to the pilot the center of the runway and to
provide alignment guidance on landing and take off.
Aiming Points:
•Aiming points are placed on runways of at least 4000 ft in length to provide enhanced visual guidance for
landing aircraft.
•Aiming point markings consist of two bold stripes, 150 ft long, 30 ft wide, spaced 72 ft apart symmetrically
about the runway center line, and beginning 1020 ft from the threshold.
 Touchdown Zone Markings
•Runway touchdown zone markings are white and consist of groups of one, two, and three rectangular bars
symmetrically arranged in pairs about the runway center line.
•These markings begin 500 ft from the runway threshold.
•The bars are 75 ft long, 6 ft wide, with 5 ft spaces between the bars, and are longitudinally spaced at distances of 500
ft along the runway.
• The inner stripes are placed 36 ft on either side of the runway center line.
•For runways less than 150 ft in width, the width and spacing of stripes may be proportionally reduced.
Side Stripes:
•Runway side stripes consist of continuous white lines along each side of the runway to provide contrast with the
surrounding terrain or to delineate the edges of the full strength pavement.
• The maximum distance between the outer edges of these markings is 200 ft and these markings have a minimum
width of 3 ft for precision instrument runways and are at least as wide as the width of the center line stripes on other
runways.
 Center line and Edge Markings
•The center line of the taxiway is marked with a single continuous 6-in yellow line.
•On taxiway curves, the taxiway center line marking continues from the straight portion of the taxiway at a
constant distance from the outside edge of the curve.
• At taxiway intersections which are designed for aircraft to travel straight through the intersection, the
centerline markings continue straight through the intersection.
•At the intersection of a taxiway with a runway end, the center line stripe of the taxiway terminates at the
edge of the runway.
•At the intersection between a taxiway and a runway, where the taxiway serves as an exit from the runway.
• the taxiway marking is usually extended on to the runway in the vicinity of the runway center line marking.
• The taxiway center line marking is extended parallel to the runway center line marking a distance of 200 ft
beyond the point of tangency.
 Taxiway Hold Markings
•For taxiway intersections where there is an operational need to hold aircraft, a
dashed yellow holding line is placed perpendicular to and across the center line of
both taxiways.
•When a taxiway intersects a runway or a taxiway enters an instrument landing
system critical area, a holding line is placed across the taxiway.
•The holding line for a taxiway intersecting a runway consists of two solid lines of
yellow stripes and two broken lines of yellow stripes placed perpendicular to the
center line of the taxiway and across the width of the taxiway.
•The solid lines are always placed on the side where the aircraft is to hold.
 Taxiway Shoulders
•In some areas on the airfield, the edges of taxiways may not be well defined due to
their adjacency to other paved areas such as aprons and holding bays.
•In these areas, it is prudent to mark the edges of taxiways with shoulder markings.
•Taxiway shoulder markings are yellow in color, and are often painted on top of a
green background.
•The shoulder markings consist of 3-ft-long yellow stripes placed perpendicular to
the taxiway edge stripes.
•On straight sections of the taxiway, the marks are placed at a maximum spacing of
100 ft.
Signs related to air port
 Air port lightings

• Approach lighting.
• Runway threshold lighting.
• Runway edge lighting.
• Runway center line and touchdown zone lights.
• Runway approach slope indicators.
• Taxiway edge and center line lighting.
Beacons:
•Beacon is a high luminous beam of light which is used to demark any geographical
location.
• It is positioned above the surrounding ground and rotated at a specific frequency.
•Rotating beacon provided at airports is rotated at six revolutions per minute.
•The beams are projected from the beacon in horizontal direction 180° apart.
•One beam emits a green light and another a clear light.
•It is usually mounted over the top of the terminal building or hangar.
•approximately 12 flashes per minute for civil airports and 18 flashes per minute for
military airports.
Boundary Lights:
•The periphery of the entire landing area is provided with lights at 90 m centre
to centre with a height of about 75 m from the ground.
• In order to indicate the hazardous approach, the boundary lights a provided
with the red marker lights.
Approach lighting:
•For a pilot while approaching a runway for landing, the approach lights are the only
elements of guidance.
• Actually before the starting point of runway, a sequence of high-intensity lighting
arrangements for a length of 900m is provided.
•This forms a basic guidance for the pilot to centre the aircraft centrally.
•These lights then give way to the touchdown zone lights from the threshold of the
runway.
Runway lighting:
•After crossing the threshold the pilot has to complete a touch down and then roll
the aircraft on the runway.
•The runway lighting has to be so planned and arranged such that it provides sufficient guidelines to the pilot.
•Alignment.
•Lateral displacement.
•Roll.
•Height of distance.
•Narrow-gauge pattern.
This pattern makes use of the centre-line and touch-down zone lights for operations in very poor visibility.
The narrow gauge pattern forms a channel of light of 18 m width up to 1140 m from the threshold and beyond this
distance.
All the lights provided on the runway are white in colour and of flush type.
 Runway Centerline and Touchdown Zone Lights
•As an aircraft traverses over the approach lights, pilots are looking at relatively bright light
sources on the extended runway center line.
•Attempts to eliminate this black hole by increasing the intensity of runway edge lights have
proven ineffective.
•In order to reduce the black hole effect and provide adequate guidance during very poor
visibility conditions, runway center line and touchdown zone lights are typically installed in
the pavement.
•These lights are usually installed only at those airports which are equipped for instrument
operations.
 Runway Edge Lights
•Runway edge lighting systems outline the edge of runways during night time and reduced visibility
conditions.
•Runway edge lights are classified by intensity, high intensity (HIRL), medium intensity (MIRL), and low
intensity (LIRL).
•LIRLs are typically installed on visual runways and at rural airports.
•MIRLs are typically installed on visual runways at larger airports and on non precision instrument runways,
HIRLs are installed on precision instrument runways.
•Elevated runway lights are mounted on frangible fittings and project no more than 30 in above the surface
on which they are installed.
•They are located along the edge of the runway not more than 10 ft from the edge of the full-strength
pavement surface.
•The longitudinal spacing is not more than 200 ft.
Runway End Identifier Lights:
•Runway end identifier lights (REIL) are installed at airports where there are no approach
lights to provide pilots with positive visual identification of the approach end of the runway.
•The system consists of a pair of synchronized white flashing lights located on each side of the
runway threshold and is intended for use when there is adequate visibility.
Runway Guard Lights:
•Runway guard lights (RGLs) are in-pavement lights located on taxiways at intersections of
runways to alert pilots and operators of airfield ground vehicles that they are about to enter
onto an active runway.
•RGLs are located across the width of the taxiway, approximately 2 ft from the entrance to a
runway, spaced at approximately 10-ft intervals
Runway Stop Bar:
• Similar to runway guard lights, runway stop bar lights are in-pavement lights on
taxiways at intersections with runways.
•As opposed to RGLs that provide warning to pilots approaching a runway, runway
stop bar lights are designed to act as stop lights, directing aircraft and vehicles on the
taxiway not to enter the runway environment.
•Runway stop bar lights are activated with red illuminations during periods of
runway occupancy or other instances where entrance from the taxiway to the
runway is prohibited.
Taxiway Lighting:
•Either after a landing or on the way to take off, pilots must manoeuvre the aircraft
on the ground on a system of taxiways to and from the terminal and hangar areas.
• Taxiway lighting systems are provided for taxiing at
night and also during the day when visibility is very poor,
particularly at commercial service airports.
 visual aid requirements for taxiways

•In order to avoid confusion with runways, taxiways must be clearly identified.
•Runway exits need to be readily identified. This is particularly true for high-speed runway
exits so that pilots can be able to locate these exits 1200 to 1500 ft before the turnoff point.
•Adequate visual guidance along the taxiway must be provided.
•Specific taxiways must be readily identified.
•The intersections between taxiways, the intersections between runways and taxiways, and
runway-taxiway crossings need to be clearly marked.
•The complete taxiway route from the runway to the apron and from the apron to the runway
should be easily identified.
 Taxiway centre line lights
Location and application:
•These lights are provided on exit taxiways, taxiway intersection and apron.
•Primary purpose of this lighting is to provide continuous guidance from runway centre line to the point on
apron where aircrafts commence manoeuvring for parking.
•Centre line lights are provided only for taxiways intended for use during nights in runway visual range
conditions of 350 m or greater.
•These lights are not to be provided on taxiways, where there is low volume of traffic.
Characteristics:
•These shall be fixed lights on all taxiways except on exist taxiways and runways forming part of a standard
taxi-routes.
• They show green with beam dimensions such that lights are visible only from aircrafts on or in the vicinity
of a taxiway.
Taxiway Edge Lights:
• Taxiway edge lights are elevated blue colored bidirectional lights usually located at
intervals of not more than 200 ft on either side of the taxiway.
•The exact spacing is influenced by the physical layout of the taxiways.
•Straight sections of taxiways generally require edge light spacing in 200-ft intervals,
or at least three lights equally spaced for taxiway straight line sections less than 200
ft in length.
•Closer spacing is required on curves. Light fixtures are located not more than 10 ft
from the edge of full strength pavement surfaces.
 Taxiway centre line lights on rapid exit taxiways
Location:
•Should commence at a point at least 60 m before beginning of a taxiway centre line
curve and continue beyond the end of a curve to a point on the centre line of the
taxiway where aircrafts reach normal taxing speed.

Taxiway centre line lights on other exit taxiways:

• The lights should commence at a point where a taxiway centre line marking begins
to curve from the runway centre line and followed a curved taxiway centre line
marking at least to the point where the marking leaves the runway.
Obstruction Lighting:
•Obstructions are identified by fixed, flashing, or rotating red lights or beacons.
•All structures that constitute a hazard to aircraft in flight or during landing or take off are marked by
obstruction lights having a horizontally uniform intensity duration and a vertical distribution
•design to give maximum range at the lower angles (1.5° to 8°)

Threshold lighting:
•In order to decide about landing or not the identification of runway threshold in important for a pilot.
•The end of approach lighting is denoted by terminal bar of red lights.
•The threshold is lighted fully with a continuous line of green light extending the full width of runway.
The lights may be semi-flush or elevated type.
 Requirements for Visual Aids
• Pilots need visual aids in good weather as well as in bad weather and during the day as
well as at night.
• In the daytime there is adequate light from the sun, so artificial lighting is not usually
required but it is necessary to have adequate contrast in the field of view.
• To have a suitable pattern of brightness so that the important features of the airport can
be identified and oriented with respect to the position of the aircraft in space.
•These requirements are almost automatically met during the day when the weather is
clear.
•The runway for conventional aircraft always appears as a long narrow strip with straight
sides and is free of obstacles.
•It can therefore be easily identified from a distance or by flying over the field.
 Aircraft Landing Operation

•An aircraft approaching a runway in a landing operation may be visualized as a sequence of

operations involving a transient body suspended in a three-dimensional grid.
• While in the air, the aircraft can be considered as a point mass in a three-dimensional
orthogonal coordinate system in which it may have translation along three coordinate
directions and rotation about three axes.
•If the three coordinate axes are aligned horizontal, vertical, and parallel to the end of the
runway, the directions of motion can be described as lateral, vertical, and forward.
•The rotations are normally called pitch, yaw, and roll, for the horizontal, vertical, and
parallel axes, respectively.
 Alignment Guidance
•Pilots must know where their aircraft is with respect to lateral displacement from the
center line of the runway.
•Most runways are from 75 to 200 ft wide and from 3000 to 12,000 ft long.
•Thus any runway is a long narrow ribbon when first seen from several thousand feet
above.
•The predominant alignment guidance comes from longitudinal lines that constitute
the center line and edges of the runway.
•All techniques, such as painting, lighting, or surface treatment that develop contrast
and emphasize these linear elements are helpful in providing alignment information.
 Height Information
•The estimation of the height above ground from visual cues is one of the most difficult
judgments for pilots.
•It is simply not possible to provide good height information from an approach lighting
system.
•Consequently two types of ground-based visual aids defining the desired glide path have
been developed.
•These are known as the visual approach slope indicator (VASI) and the precision approach
path indicator (PAPI) which are discussed later in this chapter.
• Several parameters influence how much a pilot can see on the ground.
• One of these is the cockpit cut off angle.
 Visual Approach Slope Aids
•Visual approach slope aids are lighting systems designed to provide a measure of vertical guidance to aircraft
approaching a particular runway.
•The principle of these aids is to provide color-based identification to the pilot indicating their variation from a
desired altitude and descent rate while on approach.
•The two most common visual approach slope aids are the visual approach slope indicator (VASI), and the
precision approach path indicator (PAPI).
Visual Approach Slope Indicator:
•The visual approach slope indicator (VASI) is a system of lights which acts as an aid in defining the desired
glide path in relatively good weather conditions.
•VASI lighting intensities are designed to be visible from 3 to 5 mi during the day and up to 20 mi at night.
•There are a number of different VASI configurations depending on the desired visual range, the type of
aircraft, and whether large wide bodied aircraft will be using the runway.
 MALSR system
• At smaller airports where precision approaches are not required, a medium ALS with
sequential flashers (MALSF) or with sequenced flashers (MALS) is adequate.
•The system is only 1400 ft long compared to a length of 2400 ft for a precision
approach system.
•The runway alignment indicator lights and these are only provided in the outermost
400 ft of the 1400-ft system to improve pilot recognition of the runway approach in
areas where there are distracting lights in the vicinity of the airport.
•Sequenced-flashing high-intensity lights are available for airport use and are installed
as supplements to the standard approach lighting system at those airports where very
low visibilities occur frequently.
•These lights operate from the stored energy in a capacitor which is discharged through
the lamp in approximately 5 ms and may develop as much as 30 million cd of light.
•They are mounted in the same pedestals as the light bars.
•The complete cycle is repeated every 2seconds.
 INSTRUMENTAL LANDING SYSTEMS AND AIR NAVIGATION AIDS
•Aids to navigation, known as NAVAIDS, can be broadly classified into two groups, ground-based systems and satellite-
based systems.
•Each system is complimented by systems installed in the cockpit.
Ground-Based Systems Non directional Beacon:
•The oldest active ground-based navigational aid is
the nondirectional beacon (NDB).
•The NDB emits radio frequency signals on frequencies
between 400 and 1020 Hz modulation.
•NDBs are typically mounted on a pole approximately
35 ft tall.
•They may be located on or off airport property,
at least 100 ft clear of metal buildings, power lines, or metal fences.
 Very High Frequency Omnirange Radio
•The advances in radio and electronics during and after World War II led to the
installation of the very high frequency omnirange (VOR) radio stations.
•These stations are located on the ground and send out radio signals in all directions.
•Each signal can be considered as a course or a route,
referred to as a radial that can be followed by a aircraft.
• In terms of 1° intervals, there are 360 courses or
routes that are radiated from a VOR station,
from 0° pointing toward magnetic north increasing to
359° in a clockwise direction.
• The VOR transmitter station is a small square building topped with what
appears to be a white derby hat.
• It broadcasts on a frequency just above that of FM radio stations.
• The very high frequencies it uses are virtually free of static.
• The system of VOR stations establish the network of airways and jet routes
and are also essential to area navigation.
 Distance Measuring Equipment
• Distance measuring equipment (DME) has traditionally been installed at VOR
stations in the United States.
• The DME shows the pilot the slant distance between the aircraft and a particular
VOR station.
•Since it is the air distance in nautical miles that is measured, the receiving
equipment in an aircraft flying at 35,000 ft directly over the DME station would read
5.8 nm.
• An en route air navigation aid which best suited the tactical needs of the military
was developed by the Navy in the early 1950s.
• This aid is known as TACAN, which stands for tactical air navigation. This aid
combines azimuth and distance measuring into one unit instead of two and is
operated in the ultra-high-frequency band.
• As a compromise between civilian and military requirements, the FAA replaced the
DME portion of its VOR facilities with the distance measuring components of
TACAN.
Airport traffic control
•Air traffic control facility provide the basis for communication with aircraft and the
relay and clearance of flight plans for air traffic.
•There are three basic types of facilities: air route traffic control centre, airport
traffic control tower and flight service station.
•The first attempt to set up rules for air traffic control was made by the International
Commission for Air Navigation (ICAN), which was under the direction of the League
of Nations.
•The procedures which the commission promulgated in July of 1922 were adopted
by 14 countries.
Air route traffic control centre (ARTCC)
•There are several domestic air route traffic control the movement of aircraft along the airways.
•Each centre has control of a definite geographical area and is concern primarily with the
control of aircraft.
•At the boundary limit of the control area of the centre, aircraft is released either to adjacent
centre or to an airport control tower.
• Nowadays most of the aircraft separation is maintained by radar.
•Each ARTCC is broken down into sectors in order to increase efficiency of the personnel in the
centre.
•Each sector are smaller geographical areas, air traffic is monitored in each sector by remote
radar unit at the geographical location.
Airport traffic control tower
•Airport control towers are the facilities that supervise, direct and monitor traffic within
the airport area.
• The control tower provides a traffic control function for aircraft arriving or departing
from an airport for 5 to 20km radius.
• Some control tower have approach control facilities and associated airport surveillance
radar (ASR) which guide aircraft to the airport from a number of specific positions, called
fixes within approximately 40 km of airport.
•Aircraft are brought to this position by ARTCCs.
•It is often at these fixes; aircraft are held or stacked for landing during periods of heavy
traffic.
Flight service station (FSS)
•FSS which are nowadays fully automated, are located long the airways and at
airports.
Their main functions are
•Relay traffic control messages between en route aircraft and air route traffic control
centre.
•Brief pilots, before flight and in flight, on weather, navigational aids, airports that
are out of commission, and changes in procedure and new facilities.
•Disseminate weather information.
•Monitor navigation aids.
Instrument landing system (ILS)
•It is a telecommunication aid for pilot to enable him to approach to run way for successful landing during
poor visibility conditions.
3 categories of ILS approach:
•Category – 1 – visibility of at least 800m
•Category – 2 – visibility of at least 400m
•Category – 3 - zero visibility conditions
Principle of ILS
•Aircraft is brought to holding fix by control tower with separation of 300m.
•Aircraft passes over outer & middle markers, pilot receives a high pitch steady tone.
•Aircraft passes over middle marker, pilot changes from instrumental to visual flight system.
•As aircraft slides it is picked by localiser & provides guidance along centre line of run way.
ILS consists of –
Outer & middle markers –
•Pilot finds a visual indication in cockpit & receives a high pitched steady tone.
•A purple light is indicated in control panel for outer marker where as amber light for
middle marker.
•Location of outer marker is 7 kms from air port where as 1 km for middle markers.
Glide slope antenna –
Transmits radio single in horizontal plane for correct decent of plane.
It is located at a distance of X varying from 375m & a distance of Y from 195m along
the centre line of run way.
Localiser antenna –
It is a VOR which indicates pilot to take left or right along the centre alignment of
approach to the run way.
Thank you