TOPIC 2

LOCAL NETWORK
 THE LOCAL AREA

In comparison to the long-distance sector, the local sector is not the big income
producer per capita invested, but there would be no national network without it.
Telephone companies or administrations invest, on the average, more than 50% in
their local areas. In the larger, more developed countries the investment in local
plant may reach 70% of total plant investment. The local area includes the
subscriber plant, local exchanges, and the trunk plant interconnecting these
exchanges as well as those trunks connecting a local area to the next level of
network hierarchy.
 THE LOCAL LOOP

The pair of wires connecting the subscriber to the local serving switch has been defined as
the subscriber loop (also called local loop/line). When two parties are interconnected at a
telephone exchange, it is essential that,
i) The two lines remain independent for dc energizing & signaling purposes.
ii) The two lines should behave like a single line for speech signal.
The capacitors keep the two
lines isolated so far as dc
signal is concerned,
but offers very low impedance
to the voice frequency current.

Dial Tone Sender

 LOCAL LOOP & THE LOCAL EXCHANGE
The "tip" refers to one of the two conductors in a phone line. It's typically the conductor that
carries the active signal, -48 volt. The "ring" refers to the other conductor in the phone line. It's
usually the conductor that carries the ground reference or the return signal. Typically, the tip wire
is connected to the negative terminal of the power source, while the ring wire & the positive
terminal is connected to the ground. This setup ensures that the signals travels across the circuit
correctly without electrostatic corrosion.
In the context of a telephone exchange or telecommunications system, the current detector is used
to monitor the flow of loop current in the telephone line. Typically, the current detector is
connected in series with the "tip" conductor of the phone line.
In a telephone exchange or telephone system, the dial tone sender, ringer and the digit receiver are
typically connected to the tip and ring lines in parallel.
In modern telephone exchanges and telecommunications systems, the terminology might still be
used, but the actual connections are more complex due to digital technology, multiplexing, and
 SUBSCRIBER LOOP DESIGN

When designing a subscriber loop, we would be vitally interested on what its

maximum length would be. There are two variables that must be established:
(1) The maximum loop resistance. Prior to the days of digital switches in the
United States, the value was 1300. Allowing 300 ohm for the telephone subset
leaving only 1000 for the loop itself. Some earlier digital switches advanced
this value to 1800 ; some Northern Telecom switches provide 2400 ohms.
(2) The maximum loss or attenuation on the loop. This will be taken from the
national transmission plan. In Europe, 6 dB is commonly used for this value at
the reference frequency of 800 Hz. In North America the reference frequency is
1000 Hz and the loss value may be as high as 9 dB.
 CALCULATING RESISTANCE LIMIT & LOOP LENGTH

To calculate the dc loop resistance of copper 1 “ “ “ 1000/83.5 feet

conductors for a given length, the following 1000 “ “ “ 1000*(1000/83.5) feet
formula is applicable: Rdc = 0.1095/d2
=11,970 feet = 3.65 km
where Rdc is the loop resistance in ohms per
mile (statute) and d is the diameter of the
conductor (in inches).
Cable Cable dB Loss dB Loss Resistance Resista
We can calculate the maximum loop AWG Dia Per 1000’
@1000 HZ
Per km Per 1000’ nce
Per km
(mm)
length for a given signaling resistance,
28 0.32 0.666 2.03 142 433
by using the table 2.4 (of the text by 29 0.405 0.51 1.61 83.5 270
R.L.Freeman) with the help of ratio method. 24 0.511 0.41 1.27 51.9 170
22 0.644 0.32 1.01 32.4 107
83.5 ohm is allowed for 1000 feet
 LOOP LENGTH VS LOUDNESS LOSS/ATTENUATION

The loss (attenuation) limit or transmission loss or loudness loss is the principal
parameter for measuring the quality of a speech connection. Generally it is varied
from 6 to12 or 15 dB.
The attenuation of a wire pair varies with frequency, resistance, inductance,
capacitance, & leakage conductance.
The reference equivalent or overall loudness rating is defined as the loudness loss
between the speaking subscriber’s mouth and the listening subscriber’s ear via a
connection. Overall loudness rating ( OLR) is then calculated using the following
formula: OLR = SLR + CLR + RLR.
we can derive the maximum loop length permissible for transmission design with the help of
the previous table.
 EXCHANGE LOCATION (COG METHOD)
1. A defined area is divided
into Small squares of 100–
500 m on a side.
2. write in the total number
Of subscribers in each of
The square blocks.
3. Trace two lines over the
subscriber area. One is a
horizontal line that has approximately
the same number of total subscribers
above the line as below.
The second is a vertical line
where the number of subscribers to the left of the line is the same as that to the right.
 RATIO TECHNIQUE

To determine boundaries of serving areas

when dealing with an exchange that is
already installed and a new exchange, we
use the so-called ratio technique. We
employ signaling (supervisory) limits as the
Cable Cable Loss dB Resistan Resista
basis which have been basically determined AWG Dia Per 1000’ Loss ce nce
Per Per km
@1000
by the type of exchange and the copper wire (mm)
HZ
Per km 1000’

gauge utilized for subscriber loops. 28 0.32 0.666 2.03 142 433
29 0.405 0.51 1.61 83.5 270
According to the given example of the text, 24 0.511 0.41 1.27 51.9 170
total resistance limit between the exchange 22 0.644 0.32 1.01 32.4 107

A (DMS-100) & B (Metaconta) is (2000-

300) + (1900-300) = 3300 ohm. Using 29 AWG wire we get the max distance = 3300/270
 DIGITAL ACCESS TECHNOLOGIES

Earlier, the public switched telephone network (PSTN) was viewed as a way to
transport voice, with some special services available for data using additional
equipment like modems (Common modem data rates over analog voice channels in the
PSTN ranged from 300 bps to a maximum 56 kbps, depending on the modem
technology and the quality of the telephone line.).

The copper wire pairs of the PSTN replaced analog transmission by providing a digital
transmission line called T-carrier on the customer's location (After WW-II digital
encoding by PCM of voice led to the use of 64 kbps as a standard for voice lines called DS0).
 INTEGRATED SERVICE DIGITAL NETWORK
While using either a DS0 connection or a modem we can get a voice call or internet
connection with low data rate.
ISDN is a telecommunications technology that was developed to provide digital voice and data
services simultaneously over the traditional copper telephone infrastructure. ISDN allows for the
accommodation of two separate telephone numbers through a feature called "ISDN BRI" (Basic Rate
Interface) or "2B+D" (2 Bearer channels for user data and 1 Delta channel for signaling data).
Let's say you have an ISDN connection with two B channels (B1 and B2) and one D channel. You can
use B1 for one telephone number and B2 for another telephone number. When someone calls your
ISDN line, the ISDN equipment knows which B channel to route the call to based on the dialed
number. One of the numbers is typically used as a primary number for incoming and outgoing voice
calls, the other number is often used for data services, such as fax or computer modem connections.
Thus you can simultaneously use two separate phone lines operating over the same ISDN
connection efficiently utilizing the whole bandwidth [minimum of (64+64+16 or 64) kbps].
 INTEGRATED SERVICE DIGITAL NETWORK
Internet

Other PSTN
Exchange

R interface S interface
ISDN lacked support for modern services like streaming high-definition video and gaming that
require higher bandwidth and low latency. ISDN required specialized hardware, such as ISDN
adapters and terminal adapters, which could be expensive and less readily available compared to
the more common equipment used in modern networks..
 DIGITAL SUBSCRIBER LINE (DSL)
New techniques are enabled by the
availability of low-cost, high-performance
digital signal processing. ADSL allows high
data rates to the subscribers for digital video
services and internet file download at 1.5 &
9 Mbps and moderate to low data rates from
the subscriber to the network to transmit
queries at 16 & 640 kbps.