Statistical

Process
Control
 What is a process?

Inputs PROCESS Outputs

A process can be described as a transformation of

set of inputs into desired outputs.
 Types of Measures
• Measures where the metric is composed of a classification
in one of two (or more) categories is called Attribute data.

-- Good/Bad
– Yes/No

• Measures where the metric consists of a number which

indicates a precise value is called Variable data.
– Time
– Miles/Hr

June 23, 2024 3

Population Vs. Sample (Certainty Vs. Uncertainty)

 A sample is just a subset of all possible

values
sample
population

 Since the sample does not contain all the

possible values, there is some uncertainty about
the population. Hence any statistics, such as
mean and standard deviation, are just
estimates of the true population
parameters.
June 23, 2024 4
 WHY STATISTICS?
THE ROLE OF STATISTICS ………

LSL T USL

Statistics is the art of collecting, classifying,

presenting, interpreting and analyzing numerical
data, as well as making conclusions about the
system from which the data was obtained.

June 23, 2024 5

 Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive Statistics is the branch of statistics

which most people are familiar.

It characterizes and summarizes the most

prominent features of a given set of data (means,
medians, standard deviations, percentiles, graphs,
tables and charts.

June 23, 2024 6

 Inferential Statistics

Inferential Statistics is the branch of

statistics that deals with drawing
conclusions about a population based on
information obtained from a sample drawn
from that population.

June 23, 2024 7

 WHAT IS THE MEAN?
ORDERED DATA SET
The mean is simply the average value of the -5
data. -3
-1

mean  x   x i

2
 .17 -1
n 12 0
0
n=12 0
0
0
1
3
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 4
Mean x i  2
June 23, 2024 8
WHAT IS THE MEDIAN?
If we rank order (descending or ascending) the data
ORDERED DATA SET
set ,we find the value half way (50%) through the data
-5
points and is called the median value.
-3
-1 50% of
data
-1 points

0
0
Median
0
0
0
1
3
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 4
Median
Value
June 23, 2024 9
 WHAT IS THE MODE?

If we rank order (descending or ascending) the data

set We find that a single value occurs more often than ORDERED DATA SET
any other. This is called the mode. -5
. -3
-1
-1
0
0
Mode Mode
0
0
0
1
3
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 4
June 23, 2024 10
 WHAT IS THE RANGE?
ORDERED DATA SET
The range is a very common metric .
-5
To calculate the range simply subtract the minimum value -3
in the sample from the maximum value.
-1
-1
Range  x MAX  x MIN  4  ( 5)  9 0
0
0 Range
0
0
1
3
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 4
Range
Min Max
June 23, 2024 11
 WHAT IS THE VARIANCE/STANDARD DEVIATION?

The variance (s2) is a very robust metric .

The standard deviation(s) is the square root of the variance and is the most
commonly used measure of dispersion.
DATA SET X i  X  Xi  X  2

X 
 Xi

2
 -.17 -5 -5-(-.17)=-4.83 (-4.83)2=23.32
n 12 -3 -3-(-.17)=-2.83 (-2.83)2=8.01
-1
-1-(-.17)=-.83 (-.83)2=.69

   X
2 -1
X i 61.67 0 -1-(-.17)=-.83 (-.83)2=.69
s 2
   5.6 0 0-(-.17)=.17 (.17)2=.03
n 1 12  1 0 0-(-.17)=.17 (.17)2=.03
0 0-(-.17)=.17 (.17)2=.03
0 0-(-.17)=.17 (.17)2=.03
1
0-(-.17)=.17 (.17)2=.03
3
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 4 1-(-.17)=1.17 (1.17)2=1.37
3-(-.17)=3.17 (3.17)2=10.05
4-(-.17)=4.17 (4.17)2=17.39
61.67
June 23, 2024 12
 Statistical Process Control (SPC)

• Measures performance of a process

• Uses mathematics (i.e., statistics)
• Involves collecting, organizing, & interpreting
data
• Objective: Regulate product quality
• Used to
– Control the process as products are produced
– Inspect samples of finished products
 CONTROL CHART

Functions of a Process Control System are

 To signal the presence of assignable causes

of variation

 To give evidence if a process is operating in

a state of statistical control
 CONTROL CHART

Essential features of a control chart

Variable Values

Upper Control Limit

Central Line
Lower Control Limit

Time
 Control Chart Purposes
• Show changes in data pattern
– e.g., trends
• Make corrections before process is out
of control
• Show causes of changes in data
– Assignable causes
• Data outside control limits or trend in
data
– Natural causes
• Random variations around average
 Quality Characteristics

Variables Attributes
1. Characteristics that 1. Characteristics for which
you measure, e.g., you focus on defects
weight, length 2. Classify products as either
‘good’ or ‘bad’, or count #
2. May be in whole or in defects
fractional numbers – e.g., radio works or not
3. Continuous random
3. Categorical or discrete
variables random variables
 CONTROL CHART

Types of Control Charts for Attribute Data

Description Type Sample Size

Control Chart for proportion non p Chart May change

conforming units
Control Chart for no. of non np Chart Must be constant
conforming units in a sample
Control Chart for no. of non c Chart Must be constant
conformities in a sample
Control Chart for no. of non u Chart May Change
conformities per unit
 Control Chart Types

Control
Charts

Variables Attributes
Charts Charts

R `X P C
Chart Chart Chart Chart
 X Chart

• Type of variables control chart

– Interval or ratio scaled numerical data
• Shows sample means over time
• Monitors process average and tells whether
changes have occurred. These changes may due
to 1. Tool wear
2. Increase in temperature
3. Different method used in the
second shift
4. New stronger material

• Example: Weigh samples of coffee & compute

means of samples; Plot
 R Chart

• Type of variables control chart

– Interval or ratio scaled numerical data
• Shows sample ranges over time
– Difference between smallest & largest values in inspection
sample
• Monitors variability in process, it tells us the loss or gain in
dispersion. This change may be due to:
1. Worn bearing
2. A loose tool
3. An erratic flow of lubricant to machine
4. Sloppiness of machine operator
• Example: Weigh samples of coffee & compute ranges of samples;
Plot
 Construction of X and R Charts
• Step 1: Select the Characteristics for applying a control
chart.
• Step 2: Select the appropriate type of control chart.
• Step 3: Collect the data.
• Step 4: Choose the rational sub-group i.e Sample
• Step 5: Calculate the average ( X) and range R for each
sample.
• Step 6: Cal Average of averages of X and average of
range(R)
Construction of X and R Charts
• Steps 7:Cal the limits for X and R Charts.
• Steps 8: Plot Centre line (CL) UCL and
LCL on the chart
• Steps 9: Plot individual X and R values on
the chart.
• Steps 10: Check whether the process is in
control (or) not.
• Steps 11: Revise the control limits if the
points are outside.
 X Chart
Control Limits

UCL  x  A R From
x 2 Tables
LCL  x  A R
x 2

Sub group average X = x1 + x2 +x3 +x4 +x5 / 5

Sub group range R = Max Value – Min value

 R Chart Control Limits

UCL R  D 4 R
From Tables

LCL R  D 3 R
Problem8.1 from TQM by
V.Jayakumar Page No 8.5
 p Chart for Attributes

• Type of attributes control chart

– Nominally scaled categorical data
• e.g., good-bad
• Shows % of nonconforming items
• Example: Count # defective chairs &
divide by total chairs inspected; Plot
– Chair is either defective or not
defective
 p Chart

• p = np / n where p = Fraction of Defective

np = no of Defectives
n = No of items
inspected in
sub group
p= Avg Fraction Defective = ∑np/ ∑n = CL
 p Chart
Control Limits

p (1  p )
UCL p  p  z
n z = 3 for
99.7% limits
p (1  p )
LCL p  p  z
n
 Purpose of the p Chart
Identify and correct causes of bad quality
The average proportion of defective
articles submitted for inspection,over a
period.
To suggest where X and R charts to be
used.
Determine average Quality Level.
 Problem

• Problem 9.1 Page no 9.3 TQM by V.Jayakumar

 np CHART
P and np are quiet same
Whenever subgroup size is variable,p chart is used. If sub
group size is constant, then np is used.
FORMULA: Central Line CLnp = n p
Upper Control Limit, UCLnp = n p +3√ n p (1- p )
Lower Control Limit, LCLnp = n p -3 √ n p (1- p )
Where p = ∑ np/∑n =Average Fraction Defective
n = Number of items inspected in subgroup.
 Problem

• Problem No 9.11 page No 9.11 in TQM

by V.Jayakumar
 c Chart
• Type of attributes control chart
– Discrete quantitative data
• Shows number of nonconformities (defects) in a unit
– Unit may be chair, steel sheet, car etc.
– Size of unit must be constant
• Example: Count no of defects (scratches, chips etc.)
in each chair of a sample of 100 chairs; Plot
 c Chart
Control Limits
UCLc  c  3 c Use 3 for
99.7% limits

LCLc  c  3 c