Cloud Computing and

MapReduce

Used slides from RAD Lab at UC Berkeley about the cloud ( http://abovetheclouds.cs.berkeley.edu/) and slides from Jimmy
Lin’s slides (http://www.umiacs.umd.edu/~jimmylin/cloud-2010-Spring/index.html) (licensed under Creation Commons
Attribution 3.0 License)
 Cloud computing
• What is the “cloud”?
– Many answers. Easier to explain with
examples:
• Gmail is in the cloud
• Amazon (AWS) EC2 and S3 are the cloud
• Google AppEngine is the cloud
• Windows Azure is the cloud
• SimpleDB is in the cloud
• The “network” (cloud) is the computer
 Cloud Computing
What about Wikipedia?
“Cloud computing is the delivery of
computing as a service rather than a product
, whereby shared resources, software, and
information are provided to computers and
other devices as a utility (like the
electricity grid) over a network (typically
the Internet). “
 Cloud Computing
• Computing as a “service” rather than a “product”
– Everything happens in the “cloud”: both storage and computing

– Personal devices (laptops/tablets) simply interact with the cloud

• Advantages
– Device agonstic – can seamlessly move from one device to other
– Efficiency/scalability: programming frameworks allow easy scalability
(relatively speaking)
• Increasing need to handle “Big Data”

– Reliability

– Multi-tenancy (better on the cloud provider)

– Cost: “pay as you go” allows renting computing resources as needed –

much cheaper than building your own systems
 more
• Scalability means that you (can) have infinite resources,
can handle unlimited number of users
• Multi-tenancy enables sharing of resources and costs
across a large pool of users. Lower cost, higher
utilization… but other issues: e.g. security.
• Elasticity: you can add or remove computer nodes and
the end user will not be affected/see the improvement
quickly.
• Utility computing (similar to electrical grid)
X-as-a-Service
X-as-a-Service
Cloud Types
 Data Centers
• The key infrastructure piece that enables CC
• Everyone is building them
• Huge amount of work on deciding how to build/design them
Data Centers
Data Centers
 Data Centers
• Amazon data centers: Some old
data
– 8 MW data center can include about
46,000 servers
– Costs about $88 million to build (just
the facility)
– Power a pretty large portion, but server
costs still dominate

source: James Hamilton Presentation

 Slides from 4-5 years ago

Data Centers
• Power distribution
– Almost 11% lost in distribution – starts mattering when the
total power consumption is in millions
• Modular and pre-fab designs
– Fast and economic deployments, built in a factory

source: James Hamilton Presentation

 Data Centers
• Networking equipment
– Very very expensive: server/storage prices dropping fast
– Networking frozen in time: vertically integrated ecosystem
– Bottleneck – forces workload placement restrictions

• Cooling/temperature/energy issues
– Appropriate placement of vents, inlets etc. a key issue
• Thermal hotspots often appear and need to worked around
– Overall cost of cooling is quite high
• So is the cost of running the computing equipment
– Both have led to issues in energy-efficient computing
– Hard to optimize PUE (Power Usage Effectiveness) in small data centers
•  may lead to very large data centers in near future
• Ideally PUE should be 1, currently numbers are around 1.07-1.22
– 1.07 is a Facebook data center that does not have A/C

source: James Hamilton Presentation

 MGHPCC
Massachusetts Green High Performance Computing Center

• MGHPCC in Holyoke, MA
• Cost: $95M
• 8.6 acres, 10,000 high-end computers with
hundreds of thousands of processor cores
• 10 MW power + 5MW for cooling/lighting
• Close to electricity sources (hydroelectric
plant)+ solar
• More: http://www.mghpcc.org/
 Amazon Web Services

11 AWS regions worldwide

 Virtualization
• Virtual machines (e.g., running Windows inside a Mac) etc. has
been around for a long time
– Used to be very slow…
– Only recently became efficient enough to make it a key for CC

• Basic idea: run virtual machines on your servers and sell time on
them
– That’s how Amazon EC2 runs

• Many advantages:
– “Security”: virtual machines serves as “almost” impenetrable boundary
– Multi-tenancy: can have multiple VMs on the same server
– Efficiency: replace many underpowered machines with a few high-power
machines
 Virtualization
• Consumer VM products include VMWare, Parallels (for Mac),
VirtualBox etc…

• Some tricky things to keep in mind:

– Harder to reason about performance (if you care)
– Identical VMs may deliver somewhat different performance

• Much continuing work on the virtualization technology itself

 Docker
• Hottest thing right now…
– Avoid the overheads of virtualization altogether
CLOUD COMPUTING
ECONOMICS AND ELASTICITY
 Cloud Application Demand
• Many cloud applications have cyclical demand
curves
– Daily, weekly, monthly, …

Resources

Demand

Time
 How do you pick
Economics of Cloud Users a capacity level?
• Pay by use instead of provisioning for peak
• Recall: DC costs >$150M and takes 24+
months to design and build

Capacity

Resources
Resources

Demand Capacity

Demand
Time Time

Static data center Data center in the cloud

Unused resources
 Economics of Cloud Users
• Risk of over-provisioning: underutilization
• Huge sunk cost in infrastructure
Capacity
Unused resources
Resources

Demand

Resources
Capacity
Time
Demand
Static data center
1 2 3
Time (days)
 Utility Computing Arrives
• Amazon Elastic Compute Cloud (EC2)
• “Compute unit” rental: $0.10-0.80 0.085-0.68/hour
– 1 CU ≈ 1.0-1.2 GHz 2007 AMD Opteron/Intel Xeon core
Platform Units Memory Disk
Small - $0.10 $.085/hour 32-bit 1 1.7GB 160GB
Large - $0.40 $0.35/hour 64-bit 4 7.5GB 850GB – 2 spindles
X Large - $0.80 $0.68/hour 64-bit 8 15GB 1690GB – 4 spindles
High CPU Med - $0.20 $0.17 64-bit 5 1.7GB 350GB
High CPU Large - $0.80 $0.68 64-bit 20 7GB 1690GB
High Mem X Large - $0.50 64-bit 6.5 17.1GB 1690GB
High Mem XXL - $1.20 64-bit 13 34.2GB 1690GB
High Mem XXXL - $2.40 64-bit 26 68.4GB 1690GB
• No up-front cost, no contract, no minimum
• Billing rounded to nearest hour (also regional,spot
pricing)
 Utility Storage Arrives
• Amazon S3 and Elastic Block Storage offer
low-cost, contract-less storage
 Programming Frameworks
• Third key piece emerged from efforts to “scale out”
– i.e., distribute work over large numbers of machines (1000’s of
machines)

• Parallelism has been around for a long time

– Both in a single machine, and as a cluster of computers

• But always been considered very hard to program, especially the

distributed kind
– Too many things to keep track of
• How to parallelize, how to distribute the data, how to handle
failures etc etc..

• Google developed MapReduce and BigTable frameworks, and ushered

in a new era
 Programming Frameworks
• Note the difference between “scale up” and “scale out”
– scale up usually refers to using a larger machine – easier to do
– scale out refers to distributing over a large number of machines

• Even with VMs, I still need to know how to distribute work across multiple
VMs
– Amazon’s largest single instance may not be enough
 Cloud Computing Infrastructure
• Computation model: MapReduce*
• Storage model: HDFS*
• Other computation models: HPC/Grid
Computing
• Network structure

*Some material adapted from slides by Jimmy Lin, Christophe Bisciglia, Aaron Kimball, & Sierra Michels-Slettvet,
Google Distributed Computing Seminar, 2007 (licensed under Creation Commons Attribution 3.0 License)
Cloud Computing Computation Models
• Finding the right level of abstraction
– von Neumann architecture vs cloud environment
• Hide system-level details from the developers
– No more race conditions, lock contention, etc.
• Separating the what from how
– Developer specifies the computation that needs to
be performed
– Execution framework (“runtime”) handles actual
execution
Similar to SQL!!
 Typical Large-Data Problem
Map
• Iterate over a large number of records
• Extract something of interest
c e from each
Red u
• Shuffle and sort intermediate results
• Aggregate intermediate results
• Generate final output
Key idea: provide a functional abstraction for
these two operations – MapReduce

(Dean and Ghemawat, OSDI 2004)

 MapReduce
• Programmers specify two functions:
map (k, v) → <k’, v’>*
reduce (k’, v’) → <k’, v’’>*
– All values with the same key are sent to the
same reducer
• The execution framework handles
everything else…
 MapReduce
k1 v1 k2 v2 k3 v3 k4 v4 k5 v5 k6 v6

map map map map

a 1 b 2 c 3 c 6 a 5 c 2 b 7 c 8
Shuffle and Sort: aggregate values by keys
a 15 b 27 c 2368

reduce reduce reduce

r1 s1 r2 s2 r3 s3
 MapReduce
• Programmers specify two functions:
map (k, v) → <k’, v’>*
reduce (k’, v’) → <k’, v’>*
– All values with the same key are sent to the
same reducer
• The execution framework handles
everything else…

What’s “everything else”?

 MapReduce “Runtime”
• Handles scheduling
– Assigns workers to map and reduce tasks
• Handles “data distribution”
– Moves processes to data
• Handles synchronization
– Gathers, sorts, and shuffles intermediate data
• Handles errors and faults
– Detects worker failures and automatically restarts
• Handles speculative execution
– Detects “slow” workers and re-executes work
• Everything happens on top of a distributed FS
(later)
Sounds simple, but many challenges!
 MapReduce
• Programmers specify two functions:
map (k, v) → <k’, v’>*
reduce (k’, v’) → <k’, v’>*
– All values with the same key are reduced together
• The execution framework handles everything else…
• Not quite…usually, programmers also specify:
partition (k’, number of partitions) → partition for k’
– Often a simple hash of the key, e.g., hash(k’) mod R
– Divides up key space for parallel reduce operations
combine (k’, v’) → <k’, v’>*
– Mini-reducers that run in memory after the map phase
– Used as an optimization to reduce network traffic
 k1 v1 k2 v2 k3 v3 k4 v4 k5 v5 k6 v6

map map map map

a 1 b 2 c 3 c 6 a 5 c 2 b 7 c 8
combine combine combine combine

a 1 b 2 c 9 a 5 c 2 b 7 c 8
partition partition partition partition

Shuffle and Sort: aggregate values by keys

a 15 b 27 cc 22 39 68 8

reduce reduce reduce

r1 s1 r2 s2 r3 s3
 Two more details…
• Barrier between map and reduce phases
– But we can begin copying intermediate data
earlier
• Keys arrive at each reducer in sorted order
– No enforced ordering across reducers
 MapReduce Overall Architecture
User
Program
(1) submit

Master
(2) schedule map (2) schedule reduce

worker
split 0 (5) remote read (6) writeoutput
split 1 (3) read worker file 0
split 2 (4) local write
split 3 worker
output
split 4 worker file 1
worker

Input Map Intermediate files Reduce Output

files phase (on local disk) phase files

Adapted from (Dean and Ghemawat, OSDI 2004)

“Hello World” Example: Word Count
Map(String docid, String text):
for each word w in text:
Emit(w, 1);

Reduce(String term, Iterator<Int> values):

int sum = 0;
for each v in values:
sum += v;
Emit(term, value);
 MapReduce can refer to…
• The programming model
• The execution framework (aka “runtime”)
• The specific implementation

Usage is usually clear from context!

 MapReduce Implementations

• Google has a proprietary implementation in C++

– Bindings in Java, Python
• Hadoop is an open-source implementation in Java
– Development led by Yahoo, used in production
– Now an Apache project
– Rapidly expanding software ecosystem, but still lots
of room for improvement
• Lots of custom research implementations
– For GPUs, cell processors, etc.
Cloud Computing Storage, or how do we
get data to the workers?
NAS

SAN

Compute Nodes

What’s the problem here?

 Distributed File System
• Don’t move data to workers… move workers to the
data!
– Store data on the local disks of nodes in the cluster
– Start up the workers on the node that has the data local
• Why?
– Network bisection bandwidth is limited
– Not enough RAM to hold all the data in memory
– Disk access is slow, but disk throughput is reasonable
• A distributed file system is the answer
– GFS (Google File System) for Google’s MapReduce
– HDFS (Hadoop Distributed File System) for Hadoop
 GFS: Assumptions

• Choose commodity hardware over “exotic” hardware

– Scale “out”, not “up”
• High component failure rates
– Inexpensive commodity components fail all the time
• “Modest” number of huge files
– Multi-gigabyte files are common, if not encouraged
• Files are write-once, mostly appended to
– Perhaps concurrently
• Large streaming reads over random access
– High sustained throughput over low latency

GFS slides adapted from material by (Ghemawat et al., SOSP 2003)

 GFS: Design Decisions

• Files stored as chunks

– Fixed size (64MB)
• Reliability through replication
– Each chunk replicated across 3+ chunkservers
• Single master to coordinate access, keep metadata
– Simple centralized management
• No data caching
– Little benefit due to large datasets, streaming reads
• Simplify the API
– Push some of the issues onto the client (e.g., data layout)
HDFS = GFS clone (same basic ideas implemented in Java)
 From GFS to HDFS
• Terminology differences:
– GFS master = Hadoop namenode
– GFS chunkservers = Hadoop datanodes
• Functional differences:
– No file appends in HDFS (was planned)
– HDFS performance is (likely) slower
 HDFS Architecture
HDFS namenode
Application /foo/bar
(file name, block id) File namespace
HDFS Client block 3df2
(block id, block location)

instructions to datanode

datanode state
(block id, byte range)
HDFS datanode HDFS datanode
block data Linux file system Linux file system

… …

Adapted from (Ghemawat et al., SOSP 2003)

 Namenode Responsibilities
• Managing the file system namespace:
– Holds file/directory structure, metadata, file-to-block
mapping, access permissions, etc.
• Coordinating file operations:
– Directs clients to datanodes for reads and writes
– No data is moved through the namenode
• Maintaining overall health:
– Periodic communication with the datanodes
– Block re-replication and rebalancing
– Garbage collection
Putting everything together…
namenode job submission node

namenode daemon jobtracker

tasktracker tasktracker tasktracker

datanode daemon datanode daemon datanode daemon

Linux file system Linux file system Linux file system

… … …
slave node slave node slave node
 MapReduce/GFS Summary

• Simple, but powerful programming model

• Scales to handle petabyte+ workloads
– Google: six hours and two minutes to sort 1PB (10
trillion 100-byte records) on 4,000 computers
– Yahoo!: 16.25 hours to sort 1PB on 3,800 computers
• Incremental performance improvement with more
nodes
• Seamlessly handles failures, but possibly with
performance penalties