Computer Networks

An Open Source Approach

Chapter 2: Physical Layer

Ying-Dar Lin, Ren-Hung Hwang, Fred Baker

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 1

 Content

 2.1 General Issues

 2.2 Medium
 2.3 Information Coding and Baseband
Transmission
 2.4 Digital Modulation and Multiplexing
 2.5 Advanced Topics
 2.6 Summary

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 2

2.1 General Issues

 Data and Signal: Analog or Digital

 Transmission and Reception Flow
 Transmission: Line Coding and Digital Modulation
 Transmission Impairments

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 3

Data and Signal: Analog or Digital
 Data
 Digital data – discrete value of data for storage or
communication in computer networks
 Analog data – continuous value of data such as sound
or image
 Signal
 Digital signal – discrete-time signals containing digital
information
 Analog signal – continuous-time signals containing
analog information

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 4

Periodic and Aperiodic Signals (1/4)
 Spectra of periodic analog signals: discrete

f1=100 kHz f2=400 kHz periodic analog signal

Amplitude

Time

Amplitude

100k 400k Frequency

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 5

Periodic and Aperiodic Signals (2/4)
 Spectra of aperiodic analog signals: continous

Amplitude aperiodic analog signal

Time

Amplitude

f1 f2 Frequency

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 6

Periodic and Aperiodic Signals (3/4)
 Spectra of periodic digital signals: discrete
(frequency pulse train, infinite)

Amplitude periodic digital signal frequency = f kHz

...
Time
Amplitude
frequency pulse train
...
f 2f 3f 4f 5f Frequency

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 7

Periodic and Aperiodic Signals (4/4)
 Spectra of aperiodic digital signals: continuous
(infinite)
Amplitude
aperiodic digital signal

Time
Amplitude

...
0 Frequency

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 8

 Principle in Action: Nyquist
Theorem vs. Shannon Theorem
 Nyquist Theorem:
 Nyquist sampling theorem
 fs ≧ 2 x fmax
 Maximum data rate for noiseless channel
 2 B log2 L (B: bandwidth, L: # states to represent a symbol)
 2 x 3k x log2 2 = 6 kbps
 Shannon Theorem:
 Maximum data rate for noisy channel
 B log2 (2(1+S/N)) (B: bandwidth, S: signal, N: noise)
 3k x log2 (2 x (1+1000)) = 32.9 kbps

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 9

Transmission and Reception Flows
 A digital communications system

From Other Sources

Message Channel Channel Baseband Bandpass Interference
Symbols Symbols Symbols Waveform Waveform & Noise

Information Source/Channel Transmit

Multiplexing Line Coding Modulation
Source Coding
Transmitted
Signal

Bit Stream Digital Signal Channel

Received
Signal
Information Source/Channel
Demultiplexing Line Decoding Demodulation
Sink Decoding Receive

To Other Destinations

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 10

Baseband vs. Broadband
 Baseband transmission:
 Digital waveforms traveling over a baseband channel
without further conversion into analog waveform by
modulation.

 Broadband transmission:
 Digital waveforms traveling over a broadband channel
with conversion into analog waveform by modulation.

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 11

Line Coding
Synchronization, Baseline Wandering, and DC
Components
 Synchronization
 Calibrate the receiver’s clock for synchronizing bit
intervals to the transmitter’s
 Baseline Wandering (or Drift)
 Make a received signal harder to decode
 DC components (or DC bias)
 A non-zero component around 0 Hz
 Consume more power

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 12

Digital Modulation
Amplitude, Frequency, Phase, and Code
 Use analog signals, characterized by
amplitude, frequency, phase, or code, to
represent a bit stream.
 A bit stream is modulated by a carrier signal
into a bandpass signal (with its bandwidth
centered at the carrier frequency).

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 13

Transmission Impairments
 Attenuation
 Gradual loss in intensity of flux such as radio waves
 Fading: A time varying deviation of attenuation when a modulated
waveform traveling over a certain medium
 Multipath fading: caused by multipath propagation
 Shadow fading: shadowed by obstacles
 Distortion: commonly occurs to composite signals
 Different phase shifts may distort the shape of composite signals
 Interference: usually adds unwanted signals to the desired signal,
such as co-channel interference (CCI, or crosstalk), inter-symbol
interference (ISI), inter-carrier interference (ICI)
 Noise: a random fluctuation of an analog signal, such as electronic,
thermal, induced, impulse, quantization noises.

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 14

Historical Evolution: Software
Defined Radio
 A functional model of a software radio
communications system
Source
Channel Set
Set Network Analog/Digital
IF Baseband Protected Clear Source
Waveform Waveform Bitsteam Bitsteam Bitsteam

Service
RF/
IF Information & Source
Channel Modem
Processing Security Network Coding
Access Support
RF
Waveform
Channel Coding/Decoding

Joint Control (Radio Node)

Multiple Personalities (Software Object)

Load/Execute
Host Processors

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 15

2.2 Medium

 Wired Medium
 Wireless Medium

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 16

Wired Medium: Twisted Pair (1/2)
 Two copper conductor twisted together to
prevent electromagnetic interference.
 Shielded twisted pairs, STP
Metal shield conductor

Plastic cover Insulator

 Unshielded twisted pairs, UTP.

conductor

Plastic cover Insulator

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 17

Wired Medium: Twisted Pair (2/2)
Specifications of common twisted pair cables.
Specifications Description

Category 1/2 For traditional phone lines. Not specified in TIA/EIA.

Category 3 Transmission characteristics specified up to 16 MHz

Category 4 Transmission characteristics specified up to 20 MHz

Category 5(e) Transmission characteristics specified up to 100 MHz

Category 6(a) Transmission characteristics specified up to 250 MHz (Cat-6) and 500 MHz (Cat-6a)

Category 7 Transmission characteristics specified up to 600 MHz

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 18

Wired Medium: Coaxial Cable
 Coaxial Cable
 An inner conductor surrounded by an insulating layer,
a braided outer conductor, another insulating layer,
and a plastic jacket.
Braided Inner
outer conductor conductor

Plastic jacket Insulator Insulator

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 19

Wired Medium: Optical Fiber (1/3)
 Optical Fiber
 Refraction of light and total internal reflection
perpenticular

q2
air
refractive index: n2

water
refractive index: n1
q q

q1 total internal reflection

qc

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 20

Wired Medium: Optical Fiber (2/3)

 Optical Fiber: a thin glass or plastic core is surrounded

by a cladding glass with a different density.

Cladding
(Glass)

Jacket Core
(Plastic cover) (Glass or Plastic)

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 21

Wired Medium: Optical Fiber (3/3)
 Single-mode:
 A fiber with a very thin core allowing only one mode of light to
be carried.
 Multi-mode:
 A fiber carries more than one mode of light
core different modes

cladding multi-mode fiber

single-mode fiber
core

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 22

Wireless Medium

 Propagation Methods
 Three types – ground, sky, and line-of-sight
propagation
 Transmission Waves:
 Radio, Microwave, Infrared waves
 Mobility
 Mostly use microwave

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 23

2.3 Information Coding and
Baseband Transmission

 Source and Channel Coding

 Line Coding

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 24

Source Coding

 To form efficient descriptions of information

sources so the required storage or bandwidth
resources can be reduced
 Some applications:
 Image compression
 Audio compression
 Speech compression

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 25

Channel Coding

 Used to protect digital data through a noisy

transmission medium or stored in an
imperfect storage medium.
 The performance is limited by Shannon’s
Theorem

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 26

Line Coding and Signal-to-Data
Ratio (1/2)
 Line Coding: applying a pulse modulation to
a binary symbol and generating a pulse-code
modulation (PCM) waveform
 PCM waveforms are known as line codes.
 Signal-to-Data Ratio (sdr):
 a ratio of the number of signal elements to the
number of data elements

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 27

Line Coding and Signal-to-Data
Ratio (2/2)
 A simplified line coding process
1 0 1
sdr=2 sdr > 1
Digital Transmission
1 0 1 0 sdr=1 sdr = 1
1 1 0 1 1 1 sdr=1/2 sdr < 1
digital signal
1 0 1 0 Line Coding Line Coding 1 0 1 0
Channel
digital data Encoder Decoder digital data

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 28

Self-Synchronization

 A line coding scheme embeds bit interval

information in a digital signal
 The received signal can help a receiver
synchronize its clock with the corresponding
transmitter clock.
 The line decoder can exactly retrieve the
digital data from the received signal.

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 29

Line Coding Schemes

 Unipolar NRZ
 Polar NRZ
 Polar RZ
 Polar Manchester and Differential Manchester
 Bipolar AMI and Pseudoternary
 Multilevel Coding
 Multilevel Transmission 3 Levels
 RLL

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 30

Categories of Line Coding

Category of Line Coding Line Coding

Unipolar NRZ

Polar NRZ, RZ, Manchester, differential Manchester

Bipolar AMI, Pseudoternery

Multilevel 2B1Q, 8B6T

Multitransition MLT3

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 31

The Waveforms of Line Coding Schemes

Clock
1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 Data stream

Unipolar NRZ-L
Polar NRZ-L

Polar NRZ-I

Polar RZ

Manchester

Differential
Manchester
AMI

MLT-3

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 32

Bandwidths of Line Coding (1/3)
• The bandwidth of polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I.
Power Bandwidth of NRZ Line Coding
sdr=1, average baud rate=N/2 (N, bit rate)
1.0

0.5

0
0 N/2 1N 3N/2 2N Frequncy

• The bandwidth of bipolar RZ.

Power Bandwidth of RZ Line Coding
sdr=2, average baud rate = N (N, bit rate)
1.0

0.5

0
0 N/2 1N 3N/2 2N Frequncy

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 33

Bandwidths of Line Coding (2/3)
• The bandwidth of Manchester.
Power Bandwidth of Manchester Line Coding
sdr=2, average baud rate = N (N, bit rate)
1.0

0.5

0
0 N/2 1N 3N/2 2N Frequncy
•
The bandwidth of AMI.
Power Bandwidth of AMI Line Coding
sdr=1, average baud rate = N/2 (N, bit rate)
1.0

0.5

0
0 N/2 1N 3N/2 2N Frequncy

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 34

Bandwidths of Line Coding (3/3)
• The bandwidth of 2B1Q

Power Bandwidth of 2B1Q Line Coding

sdr=1/2, average baud rate=N/4 (N, bit rate)
1.0

0.5

0
0 N/2 1N 3N/2 2N Frequncy

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 35

2B1Q Coding
 One example of multilevel coding schemes
• reduce signal rate and channel bandwidth

The mapping table for 2B1Q coding.

Dibit (2 bits) 00 01 10 11

If previous signal level, positive: next signal +1 +3 -1 -3

level =
If previous signal level, negative: next signal -1 -3 +1 +3
level =

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 36

 Examples of RLL coding
• limit the length of repeated bits
• avoid a long consecutive bit stream without transitions
(a) (0,1) RLL (b) (2,7) RLL (c) (1,7) RLL

Data (0,1) RLL Data (2, 7) RLL Data (1, 7) RLL

0 10 11 1000 00 00 101 000
1 11 10 0100 00 01 100 000
000 000100 10 00 001 000
010 100100 10 01 010 000
011 001000 00 101
0011 00001000 01 100
0010 00100100 10 001
11 010

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 37

4B/5B Encoding Table
Name 4B 5B description
0 0000 11110 hex data 0
1 0001 01001 hex data 1
2 0010 10100 hex data 2
3 0011 10101 hex data 3
4 0100 01010 hex data 4
5 0101 01011 hex data 5
6 0110 01110 hex data 6
7 0111 01111 hex data 7
8 1000 10010 hex data 8
9 1001 10011 hex data 9
A 1010 10110 hex data A
B 1011 10111 hex data B
C 1100 11010 hex data C
D 1101 11011 hex data D
E 1110 11100 hex data E
F 1111 11101 hex data F
Q n/a 00000 Quiet (signal lost)
I n/a 11111 Idle
J n/a 11000 Start #1
K n/a 10001 Start #2
T n/a 01101 End
R n/a 00111 Reset
S n/a 11001 Set
H n/a Chapter
00100 2: Physical Layer
Halt 38
The Combination of 4B/5B Coding
and NRZ-I Coding
• the technique 4B/5B may eliminate the NRZ-I synchronization problem

block coding line coding

transmitted digital signal
with synchronization
Information digital data 4B5B NRZI
Source Encoder Encoder

Channel

Information digital data 4B5B NRZI

Sink Decoder Decoder
received digital signal
with synchronization

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 39

Open Source Implementation 2.1:
8B/10B Encoder (1/2)
 Widely adopted by a variety of high-speed data
communication standards, such as
 PCI Express
 IEEE 1394b
 serial ATA
 Gigabit Ethernet
 Provides
 DC – balance
 Clock synchronization

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 40

Open Source Implementation 2.1:
8B/10B Encoder (2/2)
 Block diagram of 8B/10B Encoder
byte_clk parallel data byte control

adaptor interface
clk A B C D E F G H K

5B/6B functions 3B/4B functions

disparity control

ABCDE FGH

encoding switch
clk a b c d e i f g h j

binary lines to serializer

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 41

2.4 Digital Modulation and
Multiplexing

 Passband Modulation
 Multiplexing

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 42

Digital Modulation
 A simplified passband modulation
 ASK, FSK, PSK
 QAM
BASK
Digital Modulation
BFSK

10110110 BPSK
Information Line Modulator
Source Digital Encoder Baseband Passband signal
bit stream signal
with sinusoidal carrier
Channel

Information 10110110 Line Demodulator

Sink Decoder
BASK
BFSK
BPSK

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 43

Constellation Diagram (1/2)

 A constellation diagram: constellation points

with two bits: b0b1
Q
Quadrature Carrier

01 +1 11

Amplitue
Amplitue of Q component

-1
Phase
+1
I
In-phase Carrier

Amplitue of I component

00 -1 10

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 44

Constellation Diagram (2/2)
 The waveforms of basic digital modulations
 BASK, BFSK, BPSK, DBPSK
1 0 1 1 0
Data stream
(Digital signal)

Carrier waveform

Amplitude-shift keying
(BASK) Modulated Signal

frequency-shift keying
(BFSK) Modulated Signal

Phase-shift keying
(BPSK) Modulated Signal

Differential Phase-shift keying

(DBPSK) Modulated Signal

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 45

Amplitude Shift Keying (ASK)
and Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
 The constellation diagrams of ASK and PSK.

Q Q Q
Q Q 010
01 11 011 110
+1

0 1 0 1
001 111
-1 +1
0 +1 I -1 +1 I I I I
00 10
-1
000 101
100

(a) ASK (OOK): b0 (b) 2-PSK (BPSK): b0 (c) 4-PSK (QPSK): b0b1 (d) 8-PSK: b0b1b2 (e) 16-PSK: b0b1b2

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 46

The Bandwidth and Implementation
of BASK
(a) The bandwidth of BASK. (b) The implementation of BASK.

Power r=1, signal rate S = N (N, bit rate) 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0Multiplier

v
Bandwidth of Binary ASK Line 0
BW = (1+d)S Encoder Unipolar NRZ Binary Amplitude
Shift Keying
fc (BASK)
0 Local
0 BW Frequncy Oscillator
Carrier frequency: fc

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 47

 The Bandwidth and Implementation
of BFSK
(a) The bandwidth of BFSK. (b) The implementation of BFSK.

Voltage-Controlled
Oscillator (VCO)
1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 frequency: f1, f2
Power r=1, signal rate S = N (N, bit rate)
v
0 Voltage-
Bandwidth of Binary FSK Line
Controlled
BW = (1+d)S+2 f Encoder
Unipolar NRZ Module Binary Frequency
S(1+d) S(1+d)
Shift Keying
0
f1 f2 (BFSK)
0 2 f
Frequncy Local
BW=S(1+d)+2 f
Oscillator
Carrier frequency: fc

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 48

 The Bandwidth and Implementation
of BPSK
(a) The bandwidth of BPSK. (b) The implementation of BPSK.

1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 Multiplier
Power r=1, signal rate S = N (N, bit rate) v
Line -v
Bandwidth of Binary PSK
BW = (1+d)S Encoder Polar NRZ-L
Binary Phase Shift Keying
(BPSK)
fc
0
Local
0 BW Frequncy Oscillator
Carrier frequency: fc

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 49

The Simplified Implementation of
QPSK

b1 ... b1
v
1001 Polar NRZ-L -v
Digital Data Line Encoder Digital Signal Analog Signal: I

in-pahse
Local cosine
Oscillator QPSK
1 10 00 11 0 -90 Signal
Demultiplexor degree
Binary Bitstream
quadrature
sine (out-of-phase)

b0 ... b0
v
1010 Polar NRZ-L -v
Digital Data Line Encoder Digital Signal Analog Signal: Q

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 50

The I, Q, and QPSK Waveforms
 QPSK: A modulation using two carriers
 In-phase carrier and quadrature carrier

v
1 -1 -1 1 a split data (b1)
-v

cosine carrier

I-signal
v
1 -1 1 -1
-v a split data (b0)

sine carrier

Q-signal

Binary bitstream(b1b0)
11 00 01 10

resulting signal:
QPSK signal
Time
0 Ts 2Ts 3Ts 4Ts
2Tb 4Tb 6Tb 8Tb

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 51

The Circular Constellation Diagrams
 The constellation diagrams of ASK and PSK.

Q
Q
Q
+1+ 3

01 11
+1
+1

I
-1 +1
-1 +1 -1 - 3 +1+ 3
I
I
-1 -1

00 10

-1 - 3

(a) Circular 4-QAM: b0b1 (b) Circular 8-QAM: b0b1b2 (c) Circular 16-QAM: b0b1b2b3

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 52

 The Rectangular Constellation
Diagrams


Q
0010 0110 1110 1010
+3
Q+1
Q
Q
+1 Q
0011 0111 1111 1011
+1 +1
+1

-1 +1 -3 -1 +1 +3 -3 -1 +1 +3
0 +1 I I I -1 +1
I 0001 0101 1101 1001 I
-1 -1 -1

-1
0000 0100 1100 1000
-3

(a)Alternative (b) Rectangular (c) Alternative (d) Rectangular (e) Rectangular

Rectangular 4-QAM: b0b1 Rectangular 8-QAM: b0b1b2 16-QAM: b0b1b2b3
4-QAM: b0b1 8-QAM: b0b1b2

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 53

The Constellation of Rectangular
64-QAM: b0b1b2b3b4b5
Q
 000100 001100 011100 010100 110100 111100 101100 100100
+7

000101 001101 011101 010101 110101 111101 101101 100101

+5

000111 001111 011111 010111 110111 111111 101111 100111

+3

000110 001110 011110 010110 110110 111110 101110 100110

+1

-7 -5 -3 -1 +1 +3 +5 +7 I
000010 001010 011010 010010 110010 111010 101010 100010
-1

000011 001011 011011 010011 110011 111011 101011 100011

-3

000001 001001 011001 010001 110001 111001 101001 100001

-5

000000 001000 011000 010000 110000 111000 101000 100000

-7

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 54

Multiplexing

 A Physical Channel for Multiple Users Using

Multiplexing Techniques via Multiple Sub-
Channels
multiple users:
using multiple sub-channels via multiple lines
an aggregate transmitted signal
Information
Mux
Sources

One physical channel:

Channel Multiple logical sub-channels

Information
Demux
Sinks
an aggregate received signal

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 55

The Mapping of Channel Access
Scheme and Multiplexing
Multiplexing Channel Access Scheme Applications

FDM (frequency division FDMA (frequency division multiple 1G cell phone

multiplexing) access)
WDM (wavelength division WDMA(wave-length division multiple fiber-optical
multiplexing) access)
TDM (time division multiplexing) TDMA(time division multiple access) GSM telephone

SS (spread spectrum) CDMA(code division multiple access) 3G cell phone

DSSS (direct sequence SS) DS-CDMA(direct sequence CDMA) 802.11b/g/n

FHSS (frequency hopping SS) FH-CDMA(frequency hopping) CDMA) Bluetooth

SM (spatial multiplexing) SDMA(space division multiple access) 802.11n, LTE, WiMAX

STC (space time coding) STMA(space time multiple access) 802.11n, LTE, WiMAX

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 56

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

 Combining Multiple Digital Signals from Low-

Rate Channels into a High-Rate Channel
Mux: with
Input data interleaving Demux Output data
a2 a1 a1

TDM
b1 b1

c1 c1

Channel

One physical channel:

Multiple logical sub-channels

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 57

Frequency Division Multiplexing
(FDM)
 Dividing a frequency domain into several non-
overlapping frequency ranges

Mux Demux bandpass

filters
Modulator: carrier f1 Demodulator: carrier f1

FDM
Modulator: carrier f2 sub-channel 1
sub-channel 2
Demodulator: carrier f2
sub-channel 3

Modulator: carrier f3 Demodulator: carrier f3

Channel

One physical channel:

Multiple logical sub-channels

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 58

2.5 Advanced Topics

 Spread Spectrum (SS)

 Single-Carrier vs. Multiple Carrier
 Multiple Input Multiple Output (MIMO)

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 59

 The Modulation Techniques in WLAN
Standards
 The modulation schemes for IEEE 802.11 standards
 OFDM, DSSS, CCK, BPSK, QPSK, QAM

802.11a 802.11b 802.11g 802.11n

Bandwidth 580 MHz 83.5M0Hz 83.5 MHz 83.5MHz/580MHz
Operating Frequency 5 GHz 2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz 2.4 GHz/5 GHz
Number of Non- 24 3 3 3/24
Overlapping Channels
Number of Spatial 1 1 1 1,2,3, or 4
Streams
Date Rate per 6-54 Mbps 1-11 Mbps 1-54 Mbps 1-600 Mbps
Channel
Modulation Scheme OFDM DSSS, CCK DSSS, CCK, DSSS, CCK, OFDM,
OFDM
Subcarrier BPSK, QPSK, n/a BPSK, QPSK, 16 BPSK, QPSK, 16QAM,
Modulation Scheme 16 QAM, 64 QAM, 64 QAM 64 QAM
QAM
Chapter 2: Physical Layer 60
Pseudo Noise Code and a PN
Sequence
 Used in spread spectrum to spread a data stream
 A pseudo random numerical sequence, not a real random
sequence
data stream (data sequence): bit stream
v
(polar NRZ-L) spread sequence: chip stream
1
1 bit
0 input 0001110110111100010010
-v
output
XOR
1110001001011100010010 PN sequence 11 chips

11 chips

PN Code: 11-bit Barker code (1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0)

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 61

Spread Spectrum and Narrowband
Spectrum
 The energy of the transmitted signal is spread over a
broaden bandwidth.

Power

narrowband spectrum

Spread spectrum

BW 1 Frequency
BW 2

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 62

Barker codes and Willard codes.
 11-bit Barker code is used in IEEE 802.11b
 Barker codes have good correlation, but Willard codes
provide better performance

Code Length (N) Barker codes Willard codes

2 10 or 11 n/a
3 110 110
4 1101 or 1110 1100
5 11101 11010
7 1110010 1110100
11 11100010010 11101101000
13 1111100110101 1111100101000

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 63

A Spread Spectrum System Over a Noisy
Channel
 A noisy channel with different types of interference –
such as narrowband, wideband, multipath
interference.
narrowband
Gaussian wideband
interference
noise interference
Spreading Despreading
rx d
Input Output
transmitter direct path receiver
data stream data stream
Information d t tx b tx Multipath rx rx b d rInformation
Modulator Demodulator
Source Channel Destination
pn pn r
t rx r

PN Code reflected path PN Code

RF RF

baseband passband baseband

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 64

Impact of Interference and Noise on
DSSS
 If interference i is narrowband interference
 After despreading, the interference i becomes a flattened
spectrum with low power density
 can be filtered out by a low-pass filter.
 If interference i is wideband interference
 After despreading, the interference i is flattened again and its
power density is low.
 can be filtered out by a low-pass filter.
 If interference i is noise
 After despreading, the noise i is still a noise-like spread
sequence with low power density,
 can be filtered out by a low-pass filter.

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 65

 A DSSS (Direct sequence spread spectrum)
Transceiver
 Two sublayers of the physical layer of DSSS WLAN:
PLCP (physical layer convergence procedure) and PMD
(physical medium dependent) layer.
 Spreader for spreading spectrum belongs to PMD Layer

Transmitter Receiver
Timing
recovery
DBPSK/
Transmit
PLCP Spreader mask filter
DQPSK Correlator
modulator
DBPSK/
DQPSK Descrambler PLCP
modulator

Chip sequence

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 66

A Frequency Hopping Spread
Spectrum System
 A PN code generator
 for selecting carrier hopping frequencies
 The bandwidth of the input signal is the same as that of
the output signal

digital signal M-FSK FH analog signal

Input Output
signal Modulator Modulator signal
carriers: f1, f2, ..., fn
Freqency
synthesizer

pn t
PN code Frequency
generator word

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 67

The Spectrum of an FHSS Channel
 There are N carriers in this frequency pool
 The required bandwidth is N times of that used
by a single carriers.

spectrum
Power
of a channel

1 2 N
f RF f
BW

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 68

Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA) (1/2)
 A Spread Spectrum Multiple Access
 Unlike TDMA, FDMA
 Do not divide a physical channel into multiple sub-
channels.
 Each user uses the entire bandwidth of a
physical channel.
 Different users use different orthogonal codes or
PN codes

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 69

Code Division Multiple Access
(CDMA) (2/2)
 Synchronous CDMA
 Uses orthogonal codes
 Limited to a fixed number of simultaneous users.
 Asynchronous CDMA
 Uses PN codes
 Using spectra more efficiently than TDMA and FDMA
 Can allocate PN-code to active users without a strict
limit on the number of users.

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 70

The OVSF Code Tree
 Based on Hadamard matrix
 Used in Synchronous CDMA
C(8,1)=(1,1,1,1,1,1,1,1)
C(4,1)=(1,1,1,1)
C(8,2)=(1,1,1,1,-1,-1,-1,-1)
C(2,1)=(1,1)
C(8,3)=(1,1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,-1)
C(4,2)=(1,1,-1,-1)
C(8,4)=(1,1,-1,-1,-1,-1,1,1)
C(1,1)=(1)
C(8,5)=(1,-1,1,-1,1,-1,1,-1)
C(4,3)=(1,-1,1,-1)
C(8,6)=(1,-1,1,-1,-1,1,-1,1)
C(2,2)=(1,-1)
C(8,7)=(1,-1,-1,1,1,-1,-1,1)
C(4,4)=(1,-1,-1,1)
C(8,8)=(1,-1,-1,1,-1,1,1,-1)

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 71

Spreading a Data Signal
 One of Orthogonal Codes for one Subchannel

Data Signal
1 0 1 1 0
Tb

1 1 1 1 Orthogonal Code
-1 -1 -1 -1

Tc
Resulted Signal:
1 1 1 1 Data Signal XOR
-1 -1 -1 -1 Orthogonal Code

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 72

Advantages of CDMA

 Reduce multipath fading and narrow interference

 Reuse the same frequency
 Enable the technique of soft handoff

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 73

Orthogonal Frequency Division
Multiplexing (OFDM)
 The orthogonality of sub-channels allows data to
simultaneously travel over sub-channels
m1
OFDM
Input Serial-to- m2 Multicarrier
composite signal Add
Data parallel ... modulator Transmit
cyclic prefix
Stream converter mk (IFFT)

Channel
OFDM
m1
composite signal
Output Serial-to- m2 Multicarrier
Remove
Data parallel ... Decoder ... demodulator Receive
cyclic prefix
Stream converter mk (FFT)

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 74

An OFDM System with IFFT and FFT
 IFFT: inverse Fast Fourier Transform
 FFT: Fast Fourier Transform

m1 m1
f0 f0
m2 OFDM composite signal m2
Input f1 Channel
f1 Out
S/P P/S
Data ... ... Data
mk mk
fk fk
IFFT FFT

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 75

Orthogonality
 Two signals that cross-over at the point of zero
amplitude are orthogonal to each other

Amplitude

Frequency

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 76

Multipath Fading

 A transmitted signal reaches the receiver

antenna via different paths at different times
 Causing different level of constructive/destructive
interference, phase shift, delay, and attenuation.

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 77

Applications of OFDM
 ADSL, VDSL, power line communication
 DVB-C2, wireless LANs in IEEE 802.11 a/g/n
 WiMAX

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 78

Categories of MIMO Systems

 SU-MIMO: single user MIMO

 MU-MIMO: multiple user MIMO

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 79

An MU-MIMO System

 Antenna arrays
 AMC: adaptive coding and modulation, or link
adaptation
H1
BS 1
. .
.
MMSE/ .
Spatial Output data
1 . Mr . MMSE-SIC . DEMUX stream
AMC
. .
Channel
. .H MS 1
User Scheduling/ . .
Input data . Precoding/ .
stream
Rate Selection/
TX Beamforming
. .
Spatial MUX .
. .
Hk
Mt .
AMC

1
. .
.
MMSE/ .
Spatial Output data
Controller CSI Mr . MMSE-SIC . DEMUX stream

MSk

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 80

Applications of MIMO

 EDGE: Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution

 HSDPA: high speed downlink packet access
 802.11N

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 81

Open Source Implementation 2.3:
802.11a with OFDM (1/2)
 Block Diagram: IEEE 802.11a Transmitter
 Controller: receives packets from MAC Layer
 Mapper: operates at the OFDM symbol level
 Cyclic Extender: extends the IFFT-ed symbol

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 82

Open Source Implementation 2.3:
802.11a with OFDM (2/2)
 The circuit of the convolutional encoder
 Defined in 802.11a

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 83

Historical Evolution: Cellular Standards
Cellular AMPS GSM 850/900/ UMTS (WCDMA, LTE
Standards 1800/1900 3GPP FDD/TDD)
Generation 1G 2G 3G Pre-4G
Radio signal Analog Digital Digital Digital
Modulation FSK GMSK/ BPSK/QPSK/ QPSK/16QAM/
8PSK (EDGE only) 8PSK/16QAM 64QAM
Multiple Access FDMA TDMA/FDMA CDMA/TDMA DL:OFDMA
UL:SC-FDMA
Duplex FDD FDD/TDD FDD+TDD
n/a
(Uplink/Downli (FDD focus)
nk)
Channel 30 kHz 200kHz 5MHz 1.25/2.5/5/10/
bandwidth 15/20MHz
Number of 333/666/83 124/124/ Depends on services >200 users per cell (for 5
channels 2 channels 374/299 MHz spectrum)
(8 users per
channel)
Peak Data Rate Signaling 14.4 kbps 144 kbps (mobile)/ DL:100 Mbps
rate = 10 53.6 kbps(GPRS) 384 kbps (pedestrian)/ UL:50 Mbps
kbps 384 kbps(EDGE) 2 Mbps (indoors)/ (for 20 MHz spectrum)
10Mbps (HSDPA)

Chapter 2: Physical Layer 84

Historical Evolution: LTE-advanced vs.
WiMAX-m
Feature Mobile WiMAX(3G) WiMAX-m(4G) 3GPP-LTE (pre-4G) LTE-advanced (4G)
(IEEE802.16e) (IEEE 802.16m) (E-UTRAN)
Multiple Access WirelessMAN- WirelessMAN- DL: OFDMA DL: OFDMA
OFDMA OFDMA UL: SC-FDMA UL: SC-FDMA
Peak Data Rate DL: 64 Mbps (2×2) DL: > 350 Mbps (4×4) DL: 100Mbps DL: 1 Gbps
(TX × RX) UL: 28 Mbps (2×2 UL: >200 Mbps (2×4) UL: 50Mbps UL: 500 Mbps
collaborative MIMO) (20 MHz)
(10 MHz)
Channel 1.25/5/10/20 MHz 5/10/20 MHz and more 1.25-20MHz Band aggregation (chunks,
Bandwidth (scalable bandwidths) each 20 MHz)
Coverage 2-7 km Up to 5 km (optimized) 1-5 km (typical) 5km (optimal)
(cell radius, cell 5 -30 km (graceful Up to 100 km 30 km (reasonable
size) degradation in spectral performance),
efficiency) up to 100 km (acceptable
30 – 100 km (system performance)
should be functional)
Mobility Up to 60 ~ 120 km/h 120-350 km/h, Up to 250 km/h 350 km/h , up to 500 km/h
up to 500 km/h
Spectral DL: 6.4 (peak) DL: >17.5 (peak) 5 bps/Hz DL: 30 (8×8)
Efficiency UL: 2.8 (peak) UL: > 10 (peak) UL: 15 (4×4)
(bps/Hz)
(TX × RX)
MIMO (TX×RX) DL: 2×2 DL: 2×2/2×4/4×2/4×4 2×2 DL: 2×2/4×2/4×4/8×8
(antenna UL: 1×N UL: 1×2/1×4/2×2/2×4 UL: 1×2/2×4
techniques) (Collaborative SM)
Legacy IEEE802.16a ~d IEEE802.16e GSM/GPRS/EGPRS/ GSM/GPRS/EGPRS/
UMTS/HSPA UMTS/HSPA/LTE
Chapter 2: Physical Layer 85
2.6 Summary
 Popular line coding schemes, where self-
synchronization dominates the game
 Basic to advanced modulation schemes,
delivering more bits under a given bandwidth
and SNR
 For wired links, QAM, WDM, and OFDM are
considered advanced
 For vulnerable wireless links, OFDM, MIMO,
and smart antenna are now the preferred
choices
Chapter 2: Physical Layer 86