Module 05

Thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics;

Engineering application of plastics - ABS, PVC, PTFE
and Bakelite; Compounding of plastics: moulding of
plastics for Car parts, bottle caps (Injection
moulding), Pipes, Hoses (Extrusion moulding), Mobile
Phone Cases, Battery Trays, (Compression moulding),
Fibre reinforced polymers, Composites (Transfer
moulding), PET bottles (blow moulding);

Conducting polymers- Polyacetylene- Mechanism of

conduction – applications (polymers in sensors, self-
cleaning windows)
Polymers are not just a human
invention. Nature has many
examples of polymers. Cotton
fibers, Hair, wool, and other natural
fibers are polymers. They are made
by chaining one or two substances
one after another.
Polymers : Poly + mers
Poly means many; mers means units or parts
Polymers - Many parts or many units

Definition
Polymers are macromolecules (giant molecules of higher
molecular weight) formed by the repeated linking of
large number of small molecules called monomers.
Example: n CH2 = CH2 (CH2-CH2-CH2-CH2-)n

ethylene (monomer) polyethylene (polymer)

Polymerisation - is a process in which large number of

small molecules (monomers) combine to give a big
molecule (polymer) with or without elimination of
small molecules like water.
 Monomer
• monos - one
• meros - parts

Polymers
• poly - many
• meros - parts
Terminology: mer: a unit
Monomer : one unit (A)
Dimer : two units (A-A)
Trimer : three units (A-A-A)
Tetramer : four units (A-A-A-A)
Polymer : many units (-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A-
A-A-)n
Functionality: The number of bonding sites or active
sites in a monomer is called its functionality.

Degree of polymerization: The number of repeating

units in a polymers is called degree of
polymerization.
Degree of Polymerization
Tacticity
The spatial arrangement of pendent groups of
successive centers (asymmetric & symmetric carbon)
in the main chain is called its tacticity.

Isotactic
same side
Difference in
configuration

Syndiotactic
Alternative

Atactic
Random
 Classification of Polymers
Several Parameters are used to classify the polymer

Based on their origin

. Natural (rubber, wool, etc.)

2. Synthetic polymers (PE, PVC, PMMA etc.,)

Based on their backbone

Organic - backbone chain is made of carbon atoms

Inorganic –backbone chain contains elements like N,

P, S, etc.
 Based on their Use
Plastics: Reshaped into hard and tough utility article
by applying heat or pressure or both. Ex. PS, PVC,
PMMA
Elastomers: Good strength and elongation upon
vulcanization. Ex. Polyisoprene, polyisobutylene

Fibres: Long Filament like material whose length is at

least 100 times greater than its diameter. Ex. Nylon,
terylene, polyester, polyacrylonitrile
Liquid resins: Adhesives, potting compounds, sealants
in liquid form. Ex. Epoxy adhesives, poly sulphides
 Based on the Monomer
Homopolymers: Polymers formed by identical
monomers
A-A-A-A-A-A-A-A B-B-B-B-B-B-B-
Ex – Polystyrene, Polyethylene, etc.
Heteropolymers: Non identical monomers
Polymers formed from monomers of different
chemical structure; Ex- poly(vinyl chloride-co-vinyl
acetate), poly styrene-co--butadiene).
A-B-A-B-A-B-A-B
Homopolymers are further classified into three types
based on their chain configuration
Linear, branched and cross-linked
Linear Branched

monomer molecules have been

linked together in one continuous
length

Cross linked
there are side branches
of linked monomer
molecules protruding from
various central branch
points along the main
polymer chain
 Based on their structure
Random Copolymer AAAAABABABBBBBAAAA

Alternate Copolymer ABABABABABABABABAB

Block Copolymer AAAAAAABBBBBBBBBBB

Graft Copolymer AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA

B B
B B
B B
B B
B B
B B
B B
B B
Depending on nature of atoms in the polymer chain

Homochain Polymer Heterochain Polymer

Only one kind of atom More than one kind of atom
C C C C C C N C
C C C C C C N C C N

PE, PP, PS, PVC, etc. Polyamide, Polyurethane, etc.

 Classification based on methods of synthesis

Addition Polymers
Addition Polymerization
An exact multiples of monomeric unit
Monomers should have multiple bonds
Polymerization can be carried out by heating, light,
pressure or a catalyst
No byproducts

Catalyst
n CH
2 CH2 CH2 CH2
n
 Condensation or stepwise polymerisation
The polymerization proceeds by stepwise reaction
between the reactive functional groups followed by
the elimination of small molecules like water, HCl

NH2 CH2 6 NH2 + HOOC CH2 4 COOH

Hexamethylene diamine
Adipic acid
-2 n H2O

NH CH2 NH OC CH2 CO
6 4 n
Polyhexamethylene adipate or Nylon 6:6
Nylon was discovered
in 1935. The name
nylon is derived from
two cities where it was
discovered namely
New York (NY) and
London (LON).
 Nylon
Properties
A strong, tough, elastic and can be dyed easily
Nylon possesses high abrasion resistance and
chemically stable
It possesses high temperature stability and also high
melting point (160 – 264 C)
Insoluble in common organic solvents but soluble in
phenol, and formic acid
Nylon Uses
Mostly used to produce Fiber
 Copolymerization

Similar to addition polymerization

Reaction occurs between two or more monomer types

without the loss of any by-products

High molecular weight polymer

Example: SBR (Styrene Butadiene)

Classification based on the growth of polymer
chain
Chain growth polymers
Successive addition of monomeric units to the
growing chain
. .
(RCOO)2 2RCOO 2R + 2CO2

. . .
R + H2C CH2 R H2C CH2 R H2C CH2 H2C CH2

.
H2C CH2 +R
n
 Step growth Polymer
Series of independent reactions involving bond
formation (condensation) between the two different
monomers with a elimination of small molecules like
HCl, H2O, NH3, etc.
A X+B Y A B + XY

A B +A B A B A B

A B A B +A B A B

A B A B A B A B

A Bn
 Classification based on molecular forces
Plastics

• Plastics are high molecular weight organic

materials, that can be moulded into any desired
shape by the application of heat and pressure in
the presence of a catalyst
• Plastics or resins are classified into two types
A) Thermoplastic resins
B) Thermosetting resins
 Classification based on molecular forces
Thermoplastic polymers Thermosetting polymers
Linear, long chain
polymers
Upon heating get hardened
Can be softened upon and once they have solidified,
heating and hardened on they cannot best softened
cooling reversibly
They are permanent setting
Repeated heating &
cooling does not affect polymers
their structure and the
Examples are polyesters,
changes are of pure
physical nature Bakelite and epoxy resins etc.
Examples polyethylene,
polypropylene, poly(vinyl
chloride), polystyrene,
nylons, polytetrafluro
ethylene (PTFE or Teflon)
etc.
 Thermoplastics Thermosetting
They are formed by addition They are formed by condensation
polymerization only. polymerization
They consist of long chain linear They have three dimensional network
polymers with negligible cross- structures, joined by strong covalent
links. bonds
They soften on heating readily They do not soften on heating and on
because secondary forces between prolonged heating charring of polymers
the individual chain can break is caused.
easily by heat or pressure
By re-heating to a suitable They retain their shape and structure
temperature, they can be even on heating. Hence they cannot be
softened, reshaped and thus reshaped and reversed.
reversed.
They are usually, hard, strong and
They are usually soft, weak more brittle.
and less brittle.
They cannot be reclaimed from wastes.
These can be reclaimed from
wastes. Due to strong bonds and cross-linking
They are usually soluble in they are insoluble in almost all organic
some organic solvents. solvents.
 Polyvinyl Chloride
HgCl
HC CH + HCl H2C CH
Cl
H
n H2C CH Polymerization
C CH
Peroxide n
Cl
H Cl
Properties
Colorless, odorless, non-flammable & chemically inert
powder
Contains 53-55% of Cl2
Softens at 80C
Resistant to water, light, O2, inorganic acid and alkali, oil,
petrol etc., but soluble in highly chlorinated solvents
Uses
Most widely used plastic.
Highly rigid and chemically resistant, but brittle
Polytetrafluoroethylene (TEFLON) or FLUON (PTFE)
F F F F
Polymerization
C C C C
benzoyl peroxide
F F F F n

Properties
• Very strong attractive force between the chains –
regular configuration of chains
• Extreme toughness, high softening point (about 350 C)
• exceptionally high chemical-resistance towards all
chemicals (except alkali chemicals and hot fluorine)
• High density (2.1 to 2.3 gcm-3), waxy touch, very low
coefficient of friction, extremely good mechanical
properties
• It can be machined, punched, and drilled
 Uses
• Motors, transformers, cables, wires, fittings, etc
• For making gaskets, pump parts, tank linings,
chemical-carrying pipes, tubings, tanks etc
• For coating and impregnating glass fibres, asbestos
fibres and cloths
• In non-lubricating bearings and non-sticking stop-
cocks
 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
ABS is a ter-polymer

It is polymerized by the polymerization of acrylonitrile,

butadiene and styrene

Polymerization
+ +
CN
CN
Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene
ABS

It is an amorphous and thermoplastic polymer

Mainly ABS can be prepared in two different grades: 1. for

extrusion and 2. for injection moulding.
34
 Acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS)
Properties of ABS:
• Cost effective
• Good Impact Strength ABS can be recycled
• Good Chemical Resistance
• High Gloss Surface Finish
• Good Flexural Properties
• Can prepare in different grades as per the requirement

Applications of ABS:
• musical instruments (recorders, plastic clarinets, and piano movements)
• automotive trim components, automotive bumper bars
• medical devices for blood access
• White-water canoes
• buffer edging for furniture and joinery panels
• luggage and protective carrying cases
• small kitchen appliances
• Keyboard keycaps
• toys, including Lego and Kre-O bricks
• golf club heads (because of its good shock absorbance)
• Household and consumer goods 35
• It is obtained by the condensation polymerisation
of phenol and formaldehyde in the presence of
acid or alkali catalyst

Preparation
• The reaction involves the following 3 steps
 OH

CH2OH
HCHO

Monomethylol phenol

Methylolation OH
HOH2C
OH

CH2OH

2HCHO
The first step is the
reaction between Dimethylol phenol
phenol and Phenol OH

CH2OH
formaldehyde HOH2C

3HCHO
forms mono, di and
tri-methylol
phenols CH2OH
Trimethylol phenol
• When methylol phenols are heated in presence of
alkaline catalyst. The methylol phenols condense
either through methylene linkages or through ether
linkages to form resoles.
• Resole is a low molecular weight linear polymer. It is
completely soluble in alkaline solution
 OH OH

HOH2C CH2OH H CH2OH

Dimethylol phenol Monomethylol phenol

H 2O
Alkaline Catalyst

OH OH

CH2 CH2OH
HOH2C

Resole
 OH OH

CH2OH HOH2C CH2OH

HOH2C

Dimethylol phenol Dimethylol phenol

H 2O
Alkaline Catalyst

OH OH

CH2 O H 2C CH2OH
HOH2C

Resole
 OH OH

When methylol phenols are CH2OH H

heated with excess of phenol in +
presence of acid catalyst, the
methylol phenols condense Monomethylol phenol Phenol
with phenol through
methylene linkages to form H 2O
novolacs. Acid Catalyst

OH OH
OH

Novolac is a high molecular CH2 CH2 CH2

weight linear polymer.

Novolac
 OH OH
OH
Further heating of A-stage resin CH2 CH2

or B-stage resin or both in the

presence of a curing agent
(hexamethylene tetramine) CH2 CH2
CH2

produces hard, rigid, infusible,

cross-linked polymer called
bakelite
CH2 CH2

OH OH
OH

Bakelite

Cooker with Bakelite Handles

A Small Segment of Bakelite®
Properties
• Bakelite is resistant to acids, salts and most organic
solvents, but it is attacked by alkalis because of the
presence of –OH groups
• It possesses excellent electrical insulating property

Uses
• Bakelite is used as an adhesive in plywood laminations &
grinding wheels, etc
• It is also widely used in paints, varnishes
• It is used for making electrical insulator parts like plugs,
switches, heater handles, etc.,
 Moulding of Plastics into Articles
Moulding Constituents of a plastic:
Polymer + various additives

 Resin
 Fillers
 Lubricants
 Catalysts or Accelerators
 Stabilizers
 Coloring agents
 Compression Moulding
Both thermoplastic & thermosetting plastics

Pre determined quantity of

Raw materials (Resin +
Filler + other additives) are
placed between two half
pieces of the mould

Heat & Pressure are

applied according to the
specifications
Curing is done by either heating (thermosetting) or
cooling (thermoplastics)
Curing takes place in the mould itself
Compression Moulding
Injection Moulding
Generally used for thermoplastics

 The moulding plastic powder is softened by heating

the hot softened plastic and then injected in to a
mould under high pressure by means of a screw
arrangement.
 The mould is kept cool to allow hot plastic cure
 The moulded object is then ejected.
 Objects can be made by this method are telephones,
Advantages
1.Low mould cost
2.Low loss of materials
3.Low finishing cost
4.High speed production
 Extrusion Moulding
Continuous moulding of
thermoplastic materials in
to articles of uniform cross
section like tubes, rods,
strips, insulated electric
cables

 The moulding powder is softened by heating

 The hot softened material is sent out to having the
required outer shape of the article to be manufactured
 The article is cooled by atmospheric exposure or by
spraying water.
 A long conveyor carries away the cooled product
continuously
 Resin Transfer Moulding
The method combines features of both Compression
Molding (hydraulic pressing and the same molding
materials - thermosets) and Injection Molding (ram-
plunger and filling the mould through a sprue)

Intricate Shape
Uniformity
Low cost
Thermoset
 The Polymers So far We have studied

F F
C C
F F n

All are Insulators

H H
H H

C C
C C
H H n H Cl n
How metals are conducting Electricity?
 Energy Bands for Solids

Conduction Band
Conduction Band
Conduction Band
Energy

Valance Band
Valance Band
Valance Band
Valance Band
Valance Band

Insulator Semiconductor Conductor

Conducting Polymers
PMMA
Nylon
PS, PE, PTFE
But some Polymers do conduct electricity and are
called as
Conducting Polymers

Alan Graham MacDiarmid

Alan J. Heeger Hideki Shirakawa

The chemistry Nobel prize in 2000 was awarded for

the discovery and study of conducting polymers
 Conducting Polymers
Polymers are typically insulators due to their very
high resistivity. Insulators have tightly bound
electrons so that nearly no electron flow occurs,
and they offer high resistance to charge flow.

For conductance free electrons are needed.

Conductivity in polymers can be induced by
delocalizing their orbitals with conjugated p-
electron backbones.
Factors that affect the conductivity

1. Density of charge carriers

2. Mobility
3. Direction
4. Presence of doping materials (additives that
facilitate the polymer conductivity)
5. Temperature
 Conducting polymers
Conjugated polymers having extended electron
delocalization over the polymer backbone through
which electron moves from one end to other end of
the polymer chain
Eg. Ployacetylene, Polyaniline (PANi), Polypyrrole, etc.
H H H H
H H H H H H H H

C C C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C

H H H H H H H H H H H H
Ethylene Polyethylene
H H H H H

C C C C C
H C C H C C C C C

Acetylene H
H H H H 
Polyacetylene
What are the two conditions for a insulating polymer
to become a conducting polymer?:
1st Condition: The polymer should consist of
alternating single and double bonds, called conjugated
double bonds.
In conjugation, the bonds between the carbon atoms
are alternately single and double. Every bond contains
a localized “sigma” (σ) bond which forms a strong
chemical bond. In addition, every double bond also
contains a less strongly localized “pi” (π) bond which
is weaker.

Polyacetylene
2nd Condition: The polymer structure has to be
disturbed - either by removing electrons from
(oxidation), or inserting them into (reduction), the
material. The process is known as Doping.

Doping process:
Polyacetylene upon doping with halogens exhibit
conductivity upto 105 S/cm.
When doped with Iodine, polyacetylene undergoes
oxidation causing electrons to be removed from
the polymer, leaving "holes" in the form of positive
charges that can move along the polymer chain.
Conductivity Mechanism in Polyacetylene:
The mechanism followed by polyacetylene for the transfer
of charge from one chain to another is called intersoliton
hopping.
What is a soliton? The soliton is a charged or a neutral
defect in the polyacetylene chain that propagates down the
chain, thereby reducing the barrier for interconversion.
The solitons (anions) transfer electrons to a neutral
soliton (radical) in a neighboring chain through an
isoenergetic process.
The charged solitons are responsible for making
polyacetylene a conductor.
 Different Types of Conducting Polymers
1. Intrinsically Conducting Polymers (ICP) (or)
Conjugated -electrons conducting polymer
Delocalization of electron over the entire polymer
backbone

n
N
S n H n
Trans- polyacetylene Polythiophene
Polypyrrole

N
n
H n
n

Polyaniline Pol(p-phenylene) Pol(p-phenylenevinylene)

ICP posses

• Low conductivity (~ 10-10-1cm-1)

• Low ionization potential and high electron affinities
(reduced or oxidized easily)
• Creates negative or positive charges by reduction
or oxidation
2. Doped Conducting Polymers
Exposing a polymer to charge transfer agent either in
gas phase or in solution

Pdoping (1-oxidation with halogen )

Treating the ICP with Lewis acid

(C2H2)n + FeCl3 (C2H2)n+ FeCl4- + FeCl2

Polyacetylene
(C2H2)n + 3I2 2 (C2H2)n+ I3 -

Dopants – Iodine, Bromine, AsF5, PF6, Naphthylamine

etc.
 3x
CH n   I  CH n   I 3
 

2
POLYANILINES
Possible Oxidation States =3
Leucoemeraldine Amine
Fully reduced form, colorless
N N N N N N N
H H H H H H H

Emeraldine Partially reduced and oxidized, green or blue

Amine - Imine

Most Stable!
Pernigraniline Fully oxidized form blue/violet
Imine
N N N N N N N

Fully oxidized or reduced forms are poor conductors

 Polyanilines (PANi)
Pure PANi, in the undoped state, is a poor
semiconductor with conductivity of about 10-8 S/cm
After doping, its conductivity could increase by a
factor of 10 S/cm or more depending on the dopant
Doping with acid such as PHBSA (para-hydroxy
benzene sulfonic acid ) can increase conductivity
because doping forms a polaron/bipolaron structure
that will increase PANi's charge due to increased
delocalization SO3H

OH
N N N N
H H n

HX

N N N N
n
H H H H
Bipolaron

N N N N
H H H n
Polaron
In p-type doping, The dopant (Iodine, I2) attracts an
electron from the polyacetylene chain to form (I3-)
leaving a positive soliton (carbenium ion) in the
polymer chain that can move along its length.
The lonely electron of the double bond, from which
an electron was removed, can move easily.
As a consequence, the double bond successively
moves along the molecule, and the polymer is
stabilized by having the charge spread over the
polymer chain.
Ndoping (Reduction with alkali metal )

Treating the ICP with Lewis base

B
C C C C +B C C C C
H H H H H H H H

Dopants – Li, Tetrabutyl ammonium, etc.

CH n   xNa  CH n  x

 xNa 

In n-type doping (This can be done by dipping the film

in THF solution of an alkali metal) soliton is a
resonance-stabilized polyenyl anion of approximately
29-31 CH units in length, with highest amplitude at
the center of the defect.
 Applications of Conducting Polymers
1. Rechargeable light weight batteries
2. Display Devices
3. In wiring aircrafts and aerospace components
4. In telecommunication systems
5. Electromagnetic screening materials
6. Electronic devices (transistors & diodes)
7. Photovoltaic devices
8. Non-linear optical materials
9. Molecular wires and switches
10.As sensors into clothing.
11.Conducting polymer textiles as a camouflage for defense
machinery.
12. LEDs.
13. Controlled drug release applications, etc.
 Applications of Conducting Polymers
Electrostatic materials Molecular electronics
Conducting adhesives Electrical displays
Electromagnetic shielding Chemical, biochemical
and thermal sensors
Printed circuit boards Rechargeable batteries
and solid electrolytes
Artificial nerves Drug release systems
Antistatic clothing Optical computers
Piezoceramics Ion exchange
membranes
Active electronics
(diodes, transistors) Electromechanical
actuators
Aircraft structures 'Smart' structures and
Switches
The order of conductivity of polymers
 Degradable Polymers
What is degradation
 Polymer degradation is a change in the properties
of a polymer or polymer-based product under the
influence of one or more environmental factors
such as heat, light or chemicals such as acids,
alkalis and some salts.
 In this sense, "degradation" is a generic term for
any number of reactions which are possible in a
polymer.
 These reactions, in turn, lead to a change in the
physical and optical properties of the polymer.
What are plastics made out of?
 Plastics are large
molecules called
polymers composed of
repeated segments
called monomers with
carbon backbones.

 Sometimes plastics are

made with other
chemicals that may
form organic molecules
when plastics degrade.
 Degradation Mechanisms
 Enzymatic degradation
 Hydrolysis
 Degradable Polymers
Biodegradation
Promoted by enzymes and may be either aerobic or
anaerobic
Complete removal of the polymer from the environment
Photodegradation
Promoted by Irradiation (Eg. Sunlight)
Rarely resulted in the Complete removal of the polymer
(by product)
Environmental degradation
Promoted by Weather elements such as wind, rain,
temperature & larger animals
Polymer could not be removed completely
Chemical degradation
Promoted by the chemical reactions through additives
(Eg. Metals and polyfunctional groups)
 CHEMICAL DEGRADATION
Whilst all polymers will be attacked by certain
chemicals, it is the reactive chemicals in the
atmosphere which must be considered.

Of these probably the most important are:

1) Oxygen - which leads to oxidative degradation.
2) Ozone - which leads to ozonolysis
3) Water - which leads to hydrolytic degradation.
 Polyesters
• Most degradable polymers are polyesters
• Ester is a covalent bond with polar nature, more
reactive
• Can be broken down by hydrolysis
• The C-O bond breaks
 Degradation

Hydrolysis and
CH3 cleavage of the ester
O CH3 O
O linkage
H O
O Opol
O O CH3 n O CH3 y
High Molecular H O
Weight Prepolymer
Mw>100,000
H

CH3 CH3
O CH3
O O + Opoly
H O HO
O O CH3 n O H
Low Molecular Weight Prepolymer O
Mw=2,000 –10,000
 Biodegradable Polymers
The biodegradation of polymer proceeds by hydrolysis
and oxidation -Requirements for a polymer to
Presence of ………. be biodegradable

Hydrolysable and oxidizable linkages in the polymer main

chain
Suitable substituents
Correct stereo configuration
Balance of hydrophobicity and hydrophilicity
Conformational flexibility
Biodegradable polymers may be divided into 3 classes
Natural polymers (Eg. Protein, cellulose, starch, Lignin)
Biosynthetic polymers (Eg. Poly-hydroxy alkanoates)
Certain Synthetic Polymers (Eg. Polycaprolactone,
Polylacticacid)
Polycaprolactone:
lactone is a cyclic ester - condensation product of an
alcohol group -OH and a carboxylic acid group -COOH
in the same molecule

3-Hydroxypropionic acid

Caprolactone
Poly-hydroxyalkonate
High molecular weight
biodegradable polymers
Melted and Moulded
Used in medical and industrial
applications because of bio
compatibility and bio-degradability

Cellulose (C6H10O5)n
High molecular weight
biodegradable polymers
Stereoregular, linear polymer of
repeating -D-glucopyranose units
Chief structural element and
major constituent of cell walls of
trees & plants
Degree of polymerization is the average number of
glucose unit in each cellulose molecule of a pulp
sample..
Cellulose Degradation

Cellulose

Oligosaccharides

Glucose

CO2
 Lignin
Lignin or lignen is a complex chemical compound most
commonly derived from wood, and an integral part of
the secondary cell walls of plants and some algae
 Lignin
It is a complex constituent of wood connecting
cellulose fibers together.

It is brown in colour and largely responsible for the

strength and rigidity of
plants.

It is amorphous, aromatic biopolymer and it is

obtained from almost all types of natural wood based
resources.

It is byproduct of pulp and paper mills and is

conveniently treated as waste material having low
economical usage.
It is separated from the cellulose conventionally
either by strong alkaline or acidic solutions or by high
pressure steam treatment followed by solvent
extraction.

Unmodified lignin has poor solubility and a

thermoplastic melt having flow characteristic like
cellulose.

One method adopted for improving the properties

and use of lignin as a thermoplastic polymer is
esterification.
Lignin was found to be useful as a mould lubricant.
Moreover, lignin and its derivatives are bio
degradable
 Lignin Degradation

Lignin Monoaryls
Lignin Degradation

Xxx
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
 Time for litter to biodegrade

Product Time to biodegrade

Paper 2-5 months

Wool socks 1 to 5 years
Plastic coated paper milk cartons 5 years
Plastic bags 10 to 20 years
Nylon fabric 30 to 40 years
Aluminum cans 80 to 100 years
Plastic 6-pack holder rings 450 years
Glass bottles 1 million years
Plastic bottles Forever
 Medical Applications of Biodegradable
 Wound Polymers
management  Dental applications
 Sutures  Guided tissue
 Staples regeneration
 Clips Membrane
 Adhesives  Void filler following
 Surgical tooth extraction
meshes  Cardiovascular
 Orthopedic applications
devices  Stents
 Pins  Intestinal applications
 Rods  Anastomosis rings
 Screws  Drug delivery system
 Tacks  Tissue engineering
 Ligaments