Computer Languages,

Algorithms
and
Program Development

How do computers know what we want them to do?

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1. Communicating with a Computer

 Communication cycle
• One complete unit of communication.
– An idea to be sent.
– An encoder. Speaker encodes Listener decodes
– A sender. information information
– A medium.
– A receiver.
– A decoder.
– A response. Listener returns
feedback to speaker

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1. Communicating with a Computer …

 Substituting a
computer for one of
User encodes
the people in the information Computer decodes
communication information
process.
• Process is basically
the same.
– Response may be Computer
symbols on the returns results
monitor. to user

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 1. Communicating with a Computer …

• A breakdown can occur any place along the cycle...

 Between two people:  Between a person and a computer:
• The person can’t hear you. • The power was suddenly interrupted.

• The phone connection is broken • An internal wire became

in mid-call. disconnected.

• One person speaks only French, • A keyboard malfunctioned.

while the other only Japanese.

• When communicating instructions to a computer, areas of

difficulty are often part of the encoding and decoding process.

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1. Communicating with a Computer …
 Programming languages bridge the gap between human
thought processes and computer binary circuitry.

• Programming language: A series of specifically defined

commands designed by human programmers to give directions to
digital computers.

– Commands are written as sets of instructions, called programs.

– All programming language instructions must be expressed in

binary code before the computer can perform them.

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2. The Role of Languages in Communication

 Three fundamental elements of language that

contribute to the success or failure of the
communication cycle:

1) Semantics

2) Syntax

3) Participants

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2. The Role of Languages in Communication …

1) Semantics: Refers to meaning.

 Human language:  Computer language:

• Refers to the meaning of what is • Refers to the specific command
being said. you wish the computer to
perform.
• Words often pick up multiple – Input, Output, Print
meanings.
– Each command has a very
• Phrases sometimes have idiomatic specific meaning.
meanings:
– let sleeping dogs lie – Computers associate one
(don’t aggravate the situation meaning with one computer
by “putting in your two cents”) command.

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2. The Role of Languages in Communication …

2) Syntax: Refers to form, or structure.

 Human language:  Computer language:
• Refers to rules governing • Refers to rules governing exact
grammatical structure. spelling and punctuation, plus:
– Pluralization, tense, agreement – Formatting, repetition,
of subject and verb, subdivision of tasks,
pronunciation, and gender. identification of variables,
definition of memory
• Humans tolerate the use of spaces.
language.
– How many ways can you say no? • Computers do not tolerate
Do they have the same syntax errors.
meaning?

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2. The Role of Languages in Communication …
3) Participants:
• Human languages are used by people to communicate with each
other.
• Programming languages are used by people to communicate with
machines.

 Human language:  Computer language:

• In the communication cycle, • People use programming
humans can respond in more languages.
than one way. • Programs must be translated into
– Body language binary code.
– Facial expressions • Computers respond by performing
– Laughter the task or not!
– human speech

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3. The Programming Language Continuum
 In the Beginning...Early computers consisted of special-
purpose computing hardware.
• Each computer was designed to perform a particular arithmetic task
or set of tasks.

• Skilled engineers had to manipulate parts of the computer’s

hardware directly.
– Some computers required “fat-fingering”.
• Fat-fingering: Engineer needed to position electrical relay
switches manually.

– Others required programs to be hardwired.

• Hardwiring: Using solder to create circuit boards with connections
needed to perform a specific task.

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3. The Programming Language Continuum …

 ENIAC : Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer

• Used programs to complete a number of different mathematical tasks.

– Programs were entered by plugging connector cables directly into

sockets on a plug-in board.

• Set-up could take hours.

• A program would generally be used for weeks at a time.

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3. The Programming Language Continuum :ENIAC

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3. The Programming Language Continuum …
 In the beginning… To use a computer, you needed to know how to program it.

 Today… People no longer need to know how to program in order to use the
computer.
 To see how this was accomplished, lets investigate how programming languages
evolved.

1) First Generation - Machine Language (code)

2) Second Generation - Assembly Language
3) Third Generation - People-Oriented Programming Languages
4) Fourth Generation - Non-Procedural Languages
5) Fifth Generation - Natural Languages

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3. The Programming Language Continuum …
1) First Generation - Machine Language (code)
• Machine language programs were made up of instructions written in
binary code.

– This is the “native” language of the computer.

– Each instruction had two parts: Operation code, Operand

• Operation code (Opcode): The command part of a computer
instruction.
• Operand: The address of a specific location in the computer’s
memory.

– Hardware dependent: Could be performed by only one type of

computer with a particular CPU.

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3. The Programming Language Continuum …
2) Second Generation - Assembly Language
• Assembly language programs are made up of instructions
written in mnemonics.
• Mnemonics: Uses convenient alphabetic abbreviations
to represent operation codes, and abstract symbols to
represent operands.
• Each instruction had two parts: Operation code,
Operand.
READ num1 • Hardware dependent.
READ num2 • Because programs are not written in 1s and 0s, the
LOAD num1
computer must first translate the program before it can
ADD num2
be executed.
STORE sum
PRINT sum
STOP

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3. The Programming Language Continuum …
3) Third Generation - People-Oriented Programs
• Instructions in these languages are called statements.
– High-level languages: Use statements that resemble English
phrases combined with mathematical terms needed to
express the problem or task being programmed.

– Transportable: NOT-Hardware dependent.

– Because programs are not written in 1s and 0s, the computer

must first translate the program before it can be executed.

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3. The Programming Language Continuum …

 Pascal Example: Read in two numbers, add them, and print

them out.

Program sum2(input,output);
var
num1,num2,sum : integer;

begin
read(num1,num2);
sum:=num1+num2;
writeln(sum)
end.
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3. The Programming Language Continuum …
4) Fourth Generation - Non-Procedural Languages
• Programming-like systems aimed at simplifying the programmers
task of imparting instructions to a computer.

• Many are associated with specific application packages.

a) Query Languages:
b) Report Writers:
c) Application Generators:

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3. The Programming Language Continuum …
4) Fourth Generation - Non-Procedural Languages

a) Query Languages:
a) Enables a person to specify exactly what information they
require from the database.
b) Usually embedded within database management programs.

b) Report Writers:
a) Takes information retrieved from databases and formats into
attractive, usable output.

c) Application Generators:
– A person can specify a problem, and describe the desired results.
– Included with many micro-computer programs (macros).

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3. The Programming Language Continuum …
4) Fourth Generation - Non-Procedural Languages
• Object-Oriented Languages: A language that expresses a computer
problem as a series of objects a system contains, the behaviors of those
objects, and how the objects interact with each other.

– Object: Any entity contained within a system.

• Examples:
» A window on your screen.
» A list of names you wish to organize.
» An entity that is made up of individual parts.

– Some popular examples: C++, Java, Smalltalk, Eiffel.

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3. The Programming Language Continuum …
5) Fifth Generation - Natural Languages
• Natural-Language: Languages that use ordinary conversation in one’s
own language.

– Research and experimentation toward this goal is being done.

• Intelligent compilers are now being developed to translate

natural language (spoken) programs into structured machine-
coded instructions that can be executed by computers.

• Effortless, error-free natural language programs are still some

distance into the future.

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 Assembled, Compiled, or
Interpreted Languages
 All programs must be translated before their
instructions can be executed.
 Computer languages can be grouped according to
which translation process is used to convert the
instructions into binary code:
• Assemblers
• Interpreters
• Compilers

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 Assembled, Compiled, or
Interpreted Languages
 Assembled languages:
• Assembler: a program used to translate Assembly
language programs.
• Produces one line of binary code per original program
statement.
– The entire program is assembled before the program
is sent to the computer for execution.

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 Assembled, Compiled, or
Interpreted Languages
 Interpreted Languages:
• Interpreter: A program used to translate high-level
programs.
• Translates one line of the program into binary code at a
time:
– An instruction is fetched from the original source
code.
– The Interpreter checks the single instruction for
errors. (If an error is found, translation and execution
ceases. Otherwise…)
– The instruction is translated into binary code.
– The binary coded instruction is executed.
– The fetch and execute process repeats for the entire
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program.
 Assembled, Compiled, or
Interpreted Languages
 Compiled languages:
• Compiler: a program used to translate high-level
programs.
• Translates the entire program into binary code before
anything is sent to the CPU for execution.
– The translation process for a compiled program:
• First, the Compiler checks the entire program for syntax
errors in the original source code.
• Next, it translates all of the instructions into binary code.
» Two versions of the same program exist: the original
source code version, and the binary code version
(object code).
• Last, the CPU attempts execution only after the
programmer requests that the program be executed. 4-25
 Programming for Everyone

 Several ways to control what your computer does or

the way it accomplishes a particular task:
• Using Macros
• Using HTML to create Web Pages
• Scripting

 Each allows customization of current applications.

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 Programming for Everyone

 Using Macros
• Macro: Set of operations within the computer application
that have been recorded for later execution.
– Once recorded, the macro can be used repeatedly on
any document within that application.
– In word processors, macros are commonly used to
speed up repetitive tasks.
• Example: SIG can be stored as a macro that
includes a signature message at the end of a
document.

James R. Emmelsohn
Director of Public Relations,
Martin Electronics, Detroit Division 4-27
 Programming for Everyone

 Using HTML to create Web Pages

• HTML (HyperText Markup Language): A computer
language consisting of special codes intended to design
the layout (or markup) of a Web page.
– Web browsers interpret the HTML code and display
the resulting Web pages.
– Web browser: A program that displays information
from the WWW.
– Each line of HTML is called a tag (formatting
instruction).

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 Programming for Everyone

<HTML>  Designates an HTML document

<HEAD>  Beginning of Header section
<TITLE> Title of Web Page </TITLE>  Contents of Title bar
</HEAD>  End of Header section
<BODY bgcolor=#ffffff text=#000000 >  Background=white, text=black
<BODY>  Top of the body of the document
<H1>  H1=largest text size, H6 is
<CENTER> Sample Web Page smallest
</CENTER> </H1>  CENTER turns on centering
<HR>  Turns off centering and large text
<A HREF=“http://www.dogpile.com”>  Displays a horizontal rule: thin
dogpile search engine </A> line
</BODY>  Links to the dogpile search engine
</HTML>  </BODY> and </HTML>designate
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the bottom of the document
 Programming for Everyone

 Scripting
• Scripting: A series of commands, written to accomplish
some task.
– Very similar to the concept of a program.
– Extends the capabilities of the application where it is
being used.
– Examples of scripting languages:
• Perl, C++, VBScript, JavaScript
• JavaScript: A scripting language that allows the
Web page designer to add functional features to a
formatted web page created in HTML.

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 Building a Program

 Whatever type of problem needs to be solved, a careful

thought out plan of attack, called an algorithm, is needed
before a computer solution can be determined.

1) Developing the algorithm.

2) Writing the program.
3) Documenting the program.
4) Testing and debugging the program.

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 Building a Program

 1) Developing the algorithm.

• Algorithm: A detailed description of the exact methods
used for solving a particular problem.
• To develop the algorithm, the programmer needs to ask:
– What data has to be fed into the computer?
– What information do I want to get out of the
computer?
– Logic: Planning the processing of the program. It
contains the instructions that cause the input data to
be turned into the desired output data.

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 Building a Program

 A step-by-step program plan is created during the

planning stage.
 The three major notations for planning detailed
algorithms:
• Flowchart: Series of visual symbols representing the
logical flow of a program.
• Nassi-Schneidermann charts: Uses specific shapes and
symbols to represent different types of program
statements.
• Pseudocode: A verbal shorthand method that closely
resembles a programming language, but does not have to
follow a rigid syntax structure.
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 Building a Program
Flow chart: Nassi-Schneidermann chart:
Start Y If money > $10.00 N
Go out Go home
Count Money Repeat until
money < $10.00
Stop
Do you Yes
have more than Go out Pseudocode:
$10.00? 1. If money < $10.00 then go home
No Else Go out
2. Count money
Go home
3. Go to number 1
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 Building a Program

 2) Writing the Program

• If analysis and planning have been thoroughly done,
translating the plan into a programming language should
be a quick and easy task.

 3) Documenting the Program

• During both the algorithm development and program
writing stages, explanations called documentation are
added to the code.
– Helps users as well as programmers understand the
exact processes to be performed.

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 Building a Program

 4) Testing and Debugging the Program.

• The program must be free of syntax errors.
• The program must be free of logic errors.
• The program must be reliable. (produces correct results)
• The program must be robust. (able to detect execution
errors)

• Alpha testing: Testing within the company.

• Beta testing: Testing under a wider set of conditions
using “sophisticated” users from outside the company.

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 Software Development:
A Broader View
Measures of effort spent on real-life programs:
Comparing programs by size:

Type of program Number of Lines

The compiler for a language with a
limited instruction set. Tens of thousands of lines
A full-featured word processor. Hundreds of thousands of lines
A microcomputer operating system. Approximately 2,000,000 lines
A military weapon management program.
(controlling missiles, for example) Several million lines

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 Software Development:
A Broader View
• Measures of effort spent on real-life programs:
Comparing programs by time:
• Commercial software is seldom written by individuals.
– Person-months - equivalent to one person working
forty hours a week for four weeks.
– Person-years - equivalent to one person working for
twelve months.

– Team of 5 working 40 hours for 8 weeks = ten person-

months.

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 Web Page Design Software:
Dreamweaver
 What is Web page design software?
• The programs that help create pages and their associated
HTML.
• Dreamweaver: A visual Web page editor primarily for use
by Web design professionals.

 Why is it needed?
• Allows creation of Web pages without knowledge of HTML
.

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 Web Page Design Software:
Dreamweaver
 What minimal functions must it have?
• WYSIWIG: “What you see is what you get.”
– Web page designers see exactly what it will look like.
• Allows selection of color scheme. (Background and text)
• Allows text manipulation. (Typing text where you want it,
changing the size, color or style)
• Allows importation and layout of images.

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 Web Page Design Software:
Dreamweaver
 What types of support are available to enhance its
use?
• Applets extend the capabilities of HTML.
– Applet: A short application program, usually written
in Java, which adds enhancement and/or functionality
to a Web page.
 Is special support hardware available?
• Creating audio/visual materials for the WWW:
– Photo digitizers or scanners, video digitizer, and audio
digitizer.
– Once these are in a standard digital format, they can be
imported to Web development programs.
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 Web Page Design Software:
Dreamweaver
 One final note:
• Dreamweaver and other Web page design software create
Web pages. You still need a place to keep your Web page.
– ISP (Internet Service Provider): A company or
organization that is used as an access point to the
WWW.
• The ISP will put your Web page on its server.
• You will be given an address where you or others
can access your Web page.

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