INTRODUCTION TO

FLUID MECHANICS
AND BASIC CONCEPTS
1–1 ■ INTRODUCTION

Fluid mechanics: The science that deals with the behavior of fluids at rest
(fluid statics) or in motion (fluid dynamics), Fluid mechanics deals with
liquids and gases in motion or at rest and the interaction of fluids with solids
or other fluids at the boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is also referred to as fluid dynamics by
considering fluids at rest as a special case of motion with zero velocity.
Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that can be approximated
as incompressible (such as liquids, especially water, and gases at low
speeds).
Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which deals with liquid flows
in pipes and open channels

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What is a Fluid?

Fluid: A substance in the liquid or gas phase.

A fluid is a substance which deforms continuously, or flows, when subjected
to shearing forces.

A solid can resist an applied shear stress by deforming.

A fluid deforms continuously under the influence of a shear stress, no
matter how small.
In solids, stress is proportional to strain, but in fluids, stress is
proportional to strain rate.
When a constant shear force is applied, a solid eventually stops
deforming at some fixed strain angle, whereas a fluid never stops
deforming and approaches a constant rate of strain.

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 Properties of Fluids
Any measurable characteristic of a system is called a property.

1.Intensive Property
An intensive property is one that does not depend on the mass of the substance or
system.
Temperature (T), pressure (P) and density (r) are examples of intensive properties
2. Extensive property
An extensive property of a system depends on the system size or the amount of
matter in the system. There are properties such as length, mass, volume,
weight, etc. that depend on the quantity or size of the matter, these properties
are called an extensive property of matter and their value changes if the size or
quantity of matter changes.
 Properties of Fluids
1. Density
The density of a substance is the quantity of matter contained in a
unit volume of the substance. It can be expressed in three different
ways.

Mass Density
Mass Density, ρ (kg / m³) , is defined as the mass of substance per
unit volume

Specific Weight (N / m³), (known as weight density) is defined as

the weight per unit volume. Or The force exerted by gravity, g, upon
a unit volume of the substance.
w= ρg
Properties of Fluids
Relative Density (specific gravity)
Relative Density, S , is defined as the ratio of mass density of a substance to some
standard mass density.
For solids and liquids this standard mass density is the maximum mass density for
water at atmospheric pressure.
S= mass density of liquid/ mass density of water
DENSITY OF WATER=1000KG/m3

Typical values of specific gravity

Water = 1, Mercury = 13.5, Paraffin Oil =0.8.
 Properties of Fluids
2.
 3. VISCOSITY / Newton’s Law of Viscosity
Viscosity is the resistance offered to
the movement of one layer of fluid by
another adjacent layer of the fluid
Viscosity is the property of a fluid, due
to cohesion and interaction between
molecules, which offers resistance to
shear deformation. Different fluids
deform at different rates under the
same shear stress.
Fluid element under a shear force

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The deformation which this shear stress
causes is measured by the size of the
angle θ and is known as shear strain.

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Kgm 1s 1
Kinematic Viscosity




Compressibility

Therefore, Compressibility =1/K

Types of Fluids
1. Ideal fluid.
2. Real fluid.
3. Newtonian fluid.
4. Non-Newtonian fluid.
5. Ideal plastic fluid

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Ideal fluid: It is a fluid that does not have viscosity and cannot be compressed. This
type of fluid cannot exist practically.

Real fluid: All types of fluids that possess viscosity are classified as real fluids.
Examples: Kerosene and castor oil.

Newtonian fluid: A real fluid that abides by Newton’s law of viscosity is known as a
Newtonian fluid. Example: Hydrogen and water, Water, Mineral oil,Gasoline,
Alcohol

Non-Newtonian fluid: Fluids that do not abide by Newton’s law of viscosity are
known as Non-Newtonian fluid. Types are as
1. time independent .Dilatant .Pseudoplastic
2. Time dependent
 Thixotropic Fluid  Rheopectic fluid

Ideal plastic fluid: If the shear stress is directly proportional to the velocity
gradient, and if the value of shear stress is greater than the resultant, it is referred
to as ideal plastic fluid.

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Combined Graph
Type OF non Newtonian FLUID

time independent
1.Dilatant
2.Pseudoplastic

Time dependent
 Thixotropic Fluid

 Rheopectic fluid
 DILATANT
 Viscosity of the fluid increases when shear is applied.
 Examples

 Quicksand

 Corn flour

 Starch in water

 Potassium silicate in water.

PSEUDOPLASTIC
 Pseudoplastic is the opposite of dilatant i.e. the
more shear applied, the less viscous it becomes.
 Example

 Ketchup

 Polymer solutions

 greases

 starch suspensions

 biological fluids, detergent slurries etc.

THIXOTROPIC FLUID
 Fluids with thixotropic properties decrease
in viscosity when shear is applied.
 EXAMPLES

 Inks

 Paints

 Cosmetics

 Asphalt

 Glue

 Drilling muds.
RHEOPECTIC
 Rheopectic is very similar to dilatant in that
when shear is applied, viscosity increases. The
difference here, is that viscosity increase is
time-dependent.
EXAMPLES
 Gypsum paste

 Cream

 Bentonite clay suspensions, certain sols

and clay suspensions.
Question:1
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 Pressure
Pressure is defined as a normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area.
We speak of pressure only when we deal with a gas or a liquid. The
counterpart of pressure in solids is normal stress.
Since pressure is defined as force per unit area, it has the unit of newtons per
square meter (N/m2), which is called a pascal (Pa). That is,
1 Pa = 1 N/m2
The pressure unit pascal is too small for pressures encountered in practice.
Therefore, its multiples kilopascal (1 kPa =10 3 Pa) and megapascal (1 MPa
=106 Pa) are commonly used.
Other pressure units commonly used in practice, especially in Europe, are bar
and standard atmosphere
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Types of pressure
.

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  1. Absolute pressure - The actual pressure at a given position is called the
absolute pressure, and it is measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute
zero pressure).
 2. Gauge pressure- Most pressure-measuring devices, however, are calibrated to
read zero in the atmosphere , and so they indicate the difference between the

. absolute pressure and the local atmospheric pressure. This difference is called the
gauge pressure.
3. vacuum pressures Pressures below atmospheric pressure are called
vacuum pressures and are measured by vacuum gages that indicate the
difference between the atmospheric pressure and the absolute pressure.
Absolute, gage, and vacuum pressures are all positive quantities and are
related to each other by

 In thermodynamic relations and tables, absolute pressure is almost always used.

27Throughout this course, the pressure P will denote absolute pressure unless specified

otherwise.
Pascal’s law/ Pressure at a point
Pressure is the compressive force per unit area, and it gives the impression of
being a vector. However, pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all
directions. That is, it has magnitude but not a specific direction, and thus it is a
scalar quantity.

This can be demonstrated by considering a small wedge- shaped fluid

element that was obtained by removing a small triangular wedge of fluid
from some arbitrary location within a fluid mass.
 Since we are considering the situation in which there are no shearing
stresses, the only external forces acting on the wedge are due to the
pressure and the weight.

For simplicity the forces in the x direction are not shown, and the z axis is
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taken as the vertical axis so the weight acts in the negative z direction.
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Pressure at a point
From Newton’s second law, a force balance in the y- and z directions
gives

(a)
F y  pyδxδz  psδxδssinθ  0

where ps, py and pz are the average pressures on the faces, γ and ρ are
the fluid specific weight and density
From the geometry
δy  δs cosθ z  s sin
The last term in Eq. b drops out as δx ,δy and δz→0 and the wedge
becomes infinitesimal, and thus the fluid element shrinks to a point.
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Pressure at a point

Thus substituting and simplifying results

py  ps pz  ps or py  ps  pz
Thus we conclude that the pressure at a point in a fluid has
the same magnitude in all directions.
It can be shown in the absence of shear forces that this
result is applicable to fluids in motion (rigid body motion,
no relative motion between layers) as well as fluids at rest.
This important result is known as Pascal’s law

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Continuity equation
By steadiness, the total mass of fluid contained in the control
volume must be invariant with time.
Therefore there must be an exact balance between the total rate
of flow into the control volume and that out of the control
volume:
Total Mass Outflow = Total Mass Inflow
which translates into the following mathematical relation

Where M is the number of inlets, and N is the number of outlets.

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Continuity equation

If the fluid is incompressible, e.g. water, with ρ being effectively

constant, then .

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Bernoulli Equation
Assumptions
Inviscid flow (ideal fluid, frictionless)
Steady flow
Along a streamline
Constant density (incompressible flow)
No shaft work or heat transfer
it is an approximation that applies only to inviscid regions of flow.
The Bernoulli approximation is typically useful in flow regions
outside of boundary layers and wakes, where the fluid motion is
governed by the combined effects of pressure and gravity forces.

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Derivation of the Bernoulli
Equation
A streamline (a line which follows the direction of the fluid
velocity) is chosen with the coordinates shown in Fig below.
Around this line, a cylindrical element of fluid having the cross-
sectional area dA and length ds is considered.

Let p be the pressure acting on

the lower face, and pressure p +
dp acts on the upper face a
distance ds away.
The gravitational force acting on
this element is its weight,
ρgdAds.
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Derivation of the Bernoulli
Equation
Applying Newton’s second in the s-direction on a particle
moving along a streamline gives

The velocity may change with both position and time. In

one-dimensional flow it therefore becomes a function of
distance and time, v = v(s, t). The change in velocity dv
over time dt may be written as

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Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
Summing forces in the direction of motion, the
s-direction results

Where and
On substituting and dividing the equation by ρgdA,
we can obtain Euler's equation:

56  Note that Euler's equation is valid also for compressible flow.

Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
Now if we further assume that the flow is incompressible so that
the density is constant, we may integrate Euler's equation to get

The terms of in the equation represent energy per unit weight,

and they have the units of length (m) so they are commonly
termed heads.

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Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
A head corresponds to energy per unit weight of flow and has
dimensions of length.
Piezometric head = pressure head + elevation head, which is the
level registered by a piezometer connected to that point in a pipeline.
Total head = piezometric head + velocity head.
It follows that for ideal steady flow the total energy head is constant
along a streamline, but the constant may differ in different streamlines .
Applying the Bernoulli equation to any two points on the same
streamline, we have

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Application of Bernoulli’s
equation
Various problems on the one-dimensional flow of an ideal fluid can be
solved by jointly using Bernoulli’s theorem and the continuity equation.
Venturi, nozzle and orifice meters
The Venturi, nozzle, and orifice-meters are three similar types of devices
for measuring discharge in a pipe.
The Venturi meter consists of a rapidly converging section, which
increases the velocity of flow and hence reduces the pressure.
It then returns to the original dimensions of the pipe by a gently
diverging 'diffuser' section.
By measuring the pressure differences the discharge can be calculated.

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Application of Bernoulli’s
equation

We assume the flow is

horizontal
steady, inviscid, and
incompressible between
points (1) and (2). The
Bernoulli equation
becomes
Pitot tube

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 HYDRAULIC MACHINES
HYDRAULIC ENERGY MECHANICAL ENERGY

TURBINES
MECHANICAL ENERGY HYDRAULIC ENERGY

PUMPS
General layout of hydraulic power plant

Layout of
Hydraulic
Power
Plant)
 Hydraulic power plant

Construction
• Hydro electric power is the most remarkable development pertaining
to the exploitation of water resources throughout the world
• Hydroelectric power is developed by hydraulic turbines which are
hydraulic machines.
• Turbines convert hydraulic energy or hydro-potential into mechanical
energy.
• Mechanical energy developed by turbines is used to run electric
generators coupled to the shaft of turbines
• Hydro electric power is the most cheapest source of power
generation.

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• Working principle
• So, the working principle of the hydraulic turbine is, according to
Newton’s law, A force is directly proportional to the change in
momentum. If there is any change in momentum of fluid then a
force is generated.
• The hydraulic turbine blades (In the case of the Pelton wheel
Turbine) are provided against the flow of water which changes the
momentum of it.
• As the momentum is changing, a resulting pressure force
generated which rotates the rotor or turbine.
• As the change in momentum high, the force generated is high,
which increases energy conversion.
• So the blade or buckets are designed so that it can change the
maximum momentum of the water. This turbine is used in
a hydroelectric power plant.

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 Heads, Losses and Efficiencies of Hydraulic Plant

• Heads
These are defined as below:
(a)Gross Head: Gross or total head is the difference between the
headrace level and the tail race level when there is no flow.
(b)Net Head: Net head or the effective head is the head available at the
turbine inlet. This is less than the gross head, by an amount, equal to
the friction losses occurring in the flow passage, from the reservoir to
the turbine inlet.

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 • Efficiencies
Various types of efficiencies are defined as under:
(a)Hydraulic efficiency: It is the ratio of the power developed by
the runner to the actual power supplied by water to the runner. It
takes into account the hydraulic losses occurring in the turbine
ηh = Runner output / Actual power supplied to runner
= Runner output / (ρ.Q.g.H)
Where, Q = Quantity of water actually striking the
runner
blades
H = Net head available at the turbine inlet
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 (b)Volumetric efficiency: It is the ratio of the actual quantity of
water striking the runner blades to the quantity supplied to the
turbine. It takes into account the volumetric losses.
Let ∆Q = Quantity of water leaking or not striking the runner
blades
ηv = Q / (Q+ ∆Q)
(c)Mechanical efficiency: The ratio of the shaft output to the
runner output is called the mechanical efficiency
accounts for the mechanical losses.
ηm = Shaft output / Runner output

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 (d) Overall efficiency: Ratio of shaft output to the net power
available at the turbine inlet gives overall efficiency of the
turbine
ηm = Shaft output / Net power available

Shaft.output
o 
 (Q  Q) gH
Shaft.output Runner.output Q
o   
Runner.output QgH Q  Q
o m h v
Thus all the three types of losses, mechanical, hydraulic
and
57 volumetric have been taken into account.
 Classification of turbines
Based on head and quantity of water
a)High head turbines
b)Medium head turbines
c)Low head turbines
a) High head turbines
High head turbines are the turbines which work under heads more than 250m.
The quantity of water needed in case of high head turbines is usually small. The
Pelton turbines are the usual choice for high heads.
Medium head turbines
The turbines that work under a head of 45m to 250m are called medium
head turbines. It requires medium flow of water. Francis turbines are used
for medium heads.
Low head turbines
Turbines which work under a head of less than 45m are called low head
turbines.
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Owing to low head, large quantity of water is required. Kaplan
turbines are used for low heads.
 Classification of turbines

Based on hydraulic action of water

According to hydraulic action of water, turbines can be classified into
a)Impulse turbines
b)Reaction turbines
c)Impulse turbine: If the runner of a turbine rotates by the impact or
impulse action of water, it is an impulse turbine.
d)Reaction turbine: These turbines work due to reaction of the pressure
difference between the inlet and the outlet of the runner.

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Impulse
turbine
 Classification of turbines

Based on direction of flow of water in the runner

Depending upon the direction of flow through the
runner, following types of turbines are there
a)Tangential flow turbines
b)Radial flow turbines
c)Axial flow turbines
d)Mixed flow turbines

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Hydraulic Turbine Advantages:

The following advantages of Hydraulic Turbine:

•This is a renewable energy source. The water-energy can be used again and again.
•This turbine having high efficiency.
•The running cost of the Hydraulic turbine is less as compared to other turbines.
•Since Dams are used. So it is used for power generation.
•The environmental pollution system is negligible here.
•This is easy to maintain.
•The main advantages of the Hydraulic turbine are that at the turbine place, the people
can visit and come across all the main parts in detail. This is like an open system.
Hydraulic Turbine Disadvantages:

The following disadvantages of Hydraulic Turbine:

•The Installation or Initial cost is very high. This system or plant takes
several decades to produces the profit.
•It can develop at only a few sites where the proper amount of water
is available.
 IMPULSE TURBINE
(Pelton wheel)
The impulse turbine, the pressure change occurred in the nozzle, where
pressure head was converted into kinetic energy.
There was no pressure change in the runner, which had the sole duty of turning
momentum change into torque.
The flow of water is tangential to the runner so it is a tangential flow impulse
turbine.
The speed jet of water hits the bucket on the wheel and cause of wheel rotate.
A spear rod which has spear shaped end can be moved by hand wheel.
Construction and working:
•Blades:- The number of blades is situated over the rotary. They
are concave in shape. The water jet strikes at the blades and
change the direction of it. The force exerted on blades depends
upon amount of change in direction of jet. So the blades are
generally concave in shape.
•Rotor: Rotor which is also known as wheel is situated on the
shaft. All blades are pined into the rotor. The force exerted on
blades passes to the rotor which further rotates the shaft.

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Nozzle:- A nozzle play main role of generating power from impulse turbine. It is a
diverging nozzle which converts all pressure energy of water into kinetic energy
and forms the water jet. This high speed water strikes the blades and rotates it.
Casing:- Casing is the outside are which prevent the turbine form atmosphere. The
main function of casing is to prevent discharge the water from vanes to tail race.
There is no change in pressure of water from nozzle to tail race so this turbine
works at atmospheric pressure.
Braking nozzle:-A nozzle is provided in opposite direction of main nozzle. It is
used to slow down or stop the wheel.

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 PUMP AND CLASSIFICATION
PUMP AND
CLASSIFICATION

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FUNCTION OF HYDRAULIC ACCUMULATOR

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Working:

When the pump delivers oil to the bottom of the cylinder, as the valve
meant for the re-circulation remains closed, the oil beneath the
bottom of the ram gets pressurized and this pressurized oil lifts the
ram (cage). When the cage has to be lowered, the oil is drained back to
the oil reservoir by keeping the valve open. The time for which the
valve is kept open is decided by the electro-magnetic switch, which
gets its signal from the people who use the lift.
Disadvantages:
1.The cylinder has to be designed too long if the building is too high.
If the building is twenty meters high, the cylinder has to be dug
nineteen meters deep below the building. So, this type of elevator
cannot be used for tall buildings.

2.The energy utilized is more for the hydraulic systems and thus
they are comparatively inefficient.

3.Maintenance of hydraulic fluids is frequently required. They have

to be replenished if required which is expensive.
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