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GEOGRAPHY LESSON
NOTE FOR GRADE 11
Unit 8
8.1. Representation of relief features on topographic maps

8.1.1. Basic Concepts of Relief and Topographic Map

define relief in geography and topography map

examine how contour lines are used to represent relief

features on maps and types of contours
draw different relief features on a topographic map
Cont…
Relief: the difference in elevation between the highest
point and the lowest point on the landscape in meters.
or
It is the physical shape or surface of the earth.
Landform (relief) features are distinctive three-
dimensional objects on the earth’s surface formed due
to the earth’s movement of crustal plates, erosion and
deposition processes.
The landform features include plateau, escarpments,
hills, mountains, volcanoes, peaks, structural domes,
saddles, cliffs, valleys, gullies, washes, gorges,
depressions, floodplains, and alluvial fans.
Cont…
A map is a graphical representation of a part the earth’s
surface in the correct positions relative to coordinate
reference system at an established scale.
Maps are always smaller in size than the environment and
expressed in terms of map scale.
A Topographic map is a detailed and accurate
illustration of natural and man-made features on the
ground.
Colors, classes of features, lines, symbols, letters,
numbers, and map scale are major elements of
topographic map construction.
8.1.2. Methods of Representing Relief Features
A. Hachures
 are short disconnected lines that represent slopes.
 are drawn in the direction of the ground slope or water flows.
 They commonly illustrate the steepness of slopes.
 thicker and put close together when the slopes are steep, spaced
wide apart and thinner when the slopes are gentle.
 Hachures representing steep slopes are shorter than those
representing gentle slopes.
 Initially, they were used to represent mountain ranges and peaks,
plateaus, and valleys on simple sketch maps or small-scale maps.
 Hachures are used to show depressions and small banks or
escarpments that are prominent but not high enough to be shown
by the selected contour interval; and similar relief features.
Hachures
Cont…
Hachures have significant limitations:
 They do not indicate the height and exact gradients
 They give only qualitative information.
 Laborious to draw and can be difficult to read and interpret.
 They are not used alone; instead, they are used in combination
with contour lines to illustrate escarpments, depressions, and
craters.
 Contour or Isohyets
A contour is an imaginary line connecting places having
equal elevation on the ground surface.
Mean sea level (m.s.l) is the average level face above a
datum or mean seas level of the sea, as calculated from a large
number of observations taken at equal intervals of time. It is
the most common standard level from which all heights are
measured.
 It is a universal method to illustrate the relief without hiding
the other features drawn on the topographic map.
 Contours are drawn at regular intervals in brown color and
accurate way of illustrating relief on a topographic map.
 They are drawn at 20 m interval in 1:50,000 and 100 m interval
in 1:250,000 top sheets and never cut across each other
Contour lines
Cont…
Index contour is started from zero elevation or mean sea level
and represents every fifth heavier contour line than other
contour lines.
The intermediate contours are finer or thinner contours
falling between the index contours.
 In most cases, there are four contour lines between index
contours, and their values are calculated by dividing the
difference in elevation between two consecutive index contours
by five if there are four intermediate contours.
 General properties of contours:
A. cannot merge or cross one another on maps except at vertical
cliffs, waterfalls, and hanging cliffs.
B. contour lines never branch; rather branching lines on the map
could represent rivers, roads, and boundaries.
Cont…
C. They are always numbered in the direction towards which
altitude increases.
D. Evenly spaced contours represent a uniform slope, widely
spaced contours represent a gentle slope, and closely spaced
contours illustrate a steep slope.
 Contour lines are generated from spot heights.
A spot height is a statistical point that represents the specific
altitude of a place at that particular point. Reading contours is a
skill that helps us to understand the actual landscape.
 Contours can illustrate different types of landform reliefs, such
as mountains, hills, plateaus, valleys, ridges, gorges, spurs, and
others.
 These landform reliefs can be recognized from the shapes of
their contours.
Cont…
 8.1.3. Major Relief Features (Landforms) and Contour
Representation
A. Hill, mountain and mountain range
A hill is a rounded surface rising above its immediate
surroundings.
 From a high elevation point or hilltop, the ground slopes down
ward in all directions.
 A hill is shown on a map by contour lines forming concentric
circles.
 A series of increasingly small, closed contours at higher
elevations, with a height of less than 1,000 m indicates a hill.
 The inside of the smallest closed circle or contour at the
highest elevation is the location of the hilltop.
Cont.

 An outwardly curving convex hillside has contours more

widely spaced at the top of the hill and more closely spaced
down the hillside.
Mountain is a landmass that projects well above its
surroundings, higher than a hill.
 The closed contours with elongated shapes with increasing
values towards the center with no specific tips illustrate
mountain ranges.
Cont…
Cont…

b. Ridge
 A ridge is long and narrow hillside or a sloping line of high
ground with two or more peaks shown by an elliptical contour
line.
 When you stand on the centerline of a ridge, you do have low
ground in three directions and high ground in one direction
with varying degrees of slope.
 The contour lines form a ridge that tends to be U-shaped or V-
shaped as the close bend of the contour line point away from
the high ground.
Ridge contour
Cont…
C. Valley
 A valley is a stretched-out long and narrow groove in the land usually formed
by streams or rivers.
 It is a long depression with a slope formed by the vertical erosion of the river
within the stretch of upland.
 A Valley is bounded by two higher elevation areas. It begins with high ground
on three sides, while the fourth direction offers low ground.
 The closed end of the contour line (U or V shape) always points upstream or
toward high ground.
 Contours with “V” shapes, with upward bending and values increasing
upward represent valleys.
 Contours in a valley are parallel to the stream until they cross it at the base of
each V.
 The higher level the valley, the longer contour parallels the stream before
crossing it.
 In a very flat valley, the contour may parallel the stream across the
topographic map without crossing it, making it difficult to determine the
direction of water flow.
Cont.
Cont...
d. Saddle
 A saddle is a dip or low point between two areas of higher
ground. It is not necessarily the lower ground between two
hilltops; it may be simply a dip or break along a level ridge
crest and lower ground in the other two high ground
directions.
Cont…
e. Depression
Depression is an area with low ground surrounded by higher
ground in all directions.
On maps, depressions are represented by closed contours with
more or less circular shapes that have tick marks pointing
towards the low ground.
The values decreasing towards the center represent
depressions.
Depression contours merely represent special cases of the
standard contours on the map and thus share the same interval
and elevation values.
Contoured depressions are different from hills by short ticks
at right angles to the contours, pointing towards the center of
the depression.
Cont…
Cont…

A special type of depression contour called a cut contour

is observed, when a roadway or railway cuts through the
raised landscape, drastically lowering the terrain to form a
level bed.
Cuts are shown on a map when they are at least 10 feet
high, and they are drawn with a contour line along the cut
line.
This contour line extends the length of the cut and has tick
marks that extend from the cut line to the roadbed if the
map scale permits this level of detail.
Cont…
f. Plateau
A plateau is an elevated land represented by closed
contours roughly rectangular in shape with increasing
values towards the center.
Plateau contours with the top being very wide closed.
When the plateau is formed in the foothills is referred to
as a piedmont plateau.
If a plateau is enclosed by mountains, it is called an inter -
montane plateau.
Plateaus are higher in altitude than plains.
Cont…
Cont…
A gorge is a very steep valley at higher elevations formed by river erosion.
 It can be identified by closely converging contours in the river course.
h. Spur
 A spur is a short continuous sloping line of higher ground, normally jutting
out from the side of a ridge.
 It is a projection of land from higher to lower ground, often formed by two
rough parallel streams, which cut draws down the side of a ridge.
 The ground sloped down in three directions and up in one direction.
 Contour lines on a map depict a spur with the U or V directing away from
the high ground. Contours with “V” shapes, with downward bending and
values increasing upward represent spurs.
Cont…

Figure 8.10. Spur contours

Cont…
I. cliff
 A cliff is a steep sloped or near vertical feature exposure of a valley or
coast.
 When the cliff slope is so steep or truly vertical, the contour lines on
the slope merge into a single contour called carrying contour of
contours, to represent the vertical or near vertical form of the hillsides.
 The last contour line has tick marks pointing toward low ground.
 If the cliff is overhanging, such as for the waterfall in this illustration,
the lower-elevation contours cross behind those at the top of the cliff.
 In this special situation, the lower-elevation contours in the undercut
are shown with dotted lines to indicate that they aren’t visible from the
top of the cliff.
 Cliffs are also shown by contour lines very close together and, in some
instances, touching each other.
Cont…
Cont…
J. Fill
 Fill is a man-made feature resulting from filling a low area
usually to form a level bed for a road or railway.
 Fills are shown on a map when they are at least 10 feet
high, and they are drawn with a contour line along the fill
line.
 This contour line extends the length of the filled area and
has tick marks that point toward the lower ground.
 If the map scale permits, the length of the fill tick marks
are drawn to scale and extend from the baseline of the fill
symbol.
 8.1.4. Catchment representation on contour map
A drainage basin/catchment area refers to the entire geographical space
that is drained by the major river and its tributaries.
 A drainage system is a system that is made up of all the river basins that
flow in the same direction.
 The major river in a river basin is the longest of all the rivers in the basin.
 The other small streams that supply water to the main rivers are called
tributaries.
 The point at which the tributaries meet with the major river is called
confluence.
 The point at which the major river in a basin starts is called the source of
the river.
 The point at which the river empties itself into an ocean, a sea, or a lake is
called the mouth of the river.
 A drainage basin and its watershed can be identified on a contour map.
 This can be done by observing the patterns and shapes of the contour lines
that are used to represent the topography of the mapped area.
Cont...

Some rules are considered when using contour lines to

determine watershed boundaries.
These include, a contour line never going up or downhill,
contour lines never crossing each other, the steeper the
slope the closer together the contour lines, and the rules of
the “V”s.
Water flows down on all sides of the hill. Water flows
from the top of the saddle or ridge.
The following steps can help you identify a drainage basin
and its divide on contour maps.
First identify the course of the main river and the outlet
point of the watershed on the map, and then draw a circle
at the outlet or downstream points of the watershed.
Cont…
Second, highlight the watercourse of tributaries of the
main river and their flow direction on the map.
Third, look at the ridge lines and saddle or contour lines
near the origin of the tributaries and find high points and
ridges; and Put “X” at the high points.
Fourth, visualize surface flow direction from high points
and draw arrows to indicate direction of flow.
Fifth, trace outline of watershed beginning at outlet,
connecting high points. Mark these points with solid or
broken lines to show the river basin and its watershed.
Cont…
8.1.5. Drainage pattern representation on the contour map

How do you identify different type of drainage patterns on the

contour map?
Dendritic patterns are usually formed in areas of homogeneous
rock which comprises horizontal strata rock masses.
They are characterized by a tree-like shape with branches.
In which landforms are trellis drainage patterns largely formed?
Could you identify such drainage patterns using contour map?
Trellis drainage patterns develop in areas where harder and
softer rocks alternate.
The pattern of this drainage pattern is greatly affected by
tectonic forces (folding and faulting).
Cont…
In which relief feature does radial drainage pattern
usually found?
A radial drainage pattern occurs when rivers flow in all
directions away from a raised feature.
Centripetal drainage patterns are found in areas where
rivers flow from surrounding high ground towards a
central basin.
8.2. Basic Concepts of Geographical Information System (GIS)
8.2.1. Definition and Importance of GIS
A geographical Information System (GIS) is a
computer-based system for capturing, preparing, storing,
checking, retrieving, manipulating, analyzing, and
displaying geographically referenced data or geospatial
data.
 GIS integrates hardware, software, and geospatial data to
analyze relationships, patterns, and trends in the form of
maps, and charts to support decision-making for planning
and management of land use, natural resources,
environment, transportation, urban facilities, and other
administrative records.
Cont…
GIS can be applicable in environmental science and social
science, including population, public health, crime study,
and market planning.
One of the major benefits of GIS is that it provides a
platform to integrate complex and diverse information into a
simple and illustrative a map.
A GIS can be used to merge diverse data sources, such as
project-specific information, socio-economic data, census,
and statistical and spatial base data (administrative
boundaries, roads, cities, infrastructure, etc.).
A GIS is also used to manage critical data and to inform the
decision-making process.
It provides a platform for project planning, monitoring,
reporting, and data sharing, as well as for visualizing and
disseminating information.
Cont…

The potential for using GIS to promote teaching and learning

in Geography within schools is considerable.
GIS has immense importance to address fundamental problems
and issues, such as climate change, increasing food production,
vanishing natural resources, and natural disasters.
It is important to address local geographical issues or
problems, such as the siting of facilities (schools, hospitals, and
retail development), the management of emergency services,
and the conservation of natural resources.
Cont…
Furthermore, GIS is used to integrate information, propose
solutions and visualize scenarios, such as the site of the new
service center, the route of a controversial rail link, tourist
information services, and for health monitoring.
Most of the time, GIS is applied for the mapping and analysis
of network services, suitable sites for urban development,
transport management, suitable agriculture, disaster
management, planning and community development,
irrigation management, and wildlife management.
It is important to examine the spatial relationship between
deprivation and crime in parts of a city, determine the rate
and extent of vegetation destruction, determine the
relationship between rock type and relief in an area, and
identify areas with a high risk of slope erosion in a region.
 8.2.2. Components of GIS
 Working with GIS involves integration of five key components, including
hardware, software, data, people, and methods.
(a) Hardware
 One major component of GIS is hardware.
 The hardware consists of the technical equipment needed to run a GIS
task.
 The hardware part is divided into two: i.e. Input and Output.
 The input includes a computer with high capacity in terms of processor
speed, memory, and data storage capacity.
 GIS runs on a wide range of hardware types from centralized computer
servers to desktop computers used in a standalone or networked
configuration.
 Global position systems (GPS), mobile phones, scanners, and digitizers
are also included in the input part of the hardware.
 The output port of the hardware includes the printer, plotter, and hard
disc.
Cont...
Cont…
(b) Software
 GIS software provides the functions and tools needed to input,
store, manage, analyze, and display geographic information.
 GIS software package provides means for deriving new geo
information from existing spatial and attribute data.
 Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) product
software, such as ArcView, Arc Info, and ArcGIS are
commonly used.
 One popular software application is ArcGIS.
 The ArcGIS desktop environment includes Arc Map, Arc
Catalog, Arc Scene, and Arc Globe applications.
 A very capable open-source (free) GIS software is QGIS. It
encompasses most of the functionality included in ArcGIS.
Cont…
(c) Data
• What is data in GIS?
 Data is the most important component of GIS.
 Geographic, spatial, data and related tabular data can be collected
from the field or acquired from a data provider organization.
 Any data bearing a definable relationship to space can operate in a
GIS package.
 There are two main methods used to store data in a GIS: Raster
images and vectors.
 Rasters are used for the storage of aerial photographs and
imagery of various kinds.
 In raster data format each object is represented in the form of a
cell /grid and it has a separate reflectance value /color/.
Cont…
 The data type consists of rows and columns of cells, with
each cell storing a single value.
 The resolution of the raster data set is its cell width in
ground units.
 Rasters are used to represent continuous layers, such as
elevation, slope and aspect, soil, vegetation, temperature,
rainfall, and so on.
 ArcGIS can utilize raster data formats, such as jpg, tiffs,
etc.
Cont…
 partial data refer to the shape, size, location, and orientation of
geographical feature.
 They are generally multi-dimensional and auto correlated.
 In a GIS, geographical features are often expressed as a vector
representing discreet data.
 Different geographical features are expressed by different types
of geometry.
 For instance, geographical features, such as wells, airports cities,
schools, and health posts can be expressed by a single zero-
dimensional point.
 There is no measurement of point features.
 Geographical features, including rivers, roads, railroads, trails,
and others are expressed by one-dimensional lines or polylines.
Cont…
 Polygon features can measure perimeter and area. Data
consisting of a single feature geometry type can be stored in
the Shape file format.
 A collection of feature classes such as points, polylines, and
polygons within a geo database that shares a common
coordinate system is called a feature dataset.
 Vector data are excellent for capturing and storing spatial
details.
 Geographical or spatial data can be acquired from existing
data in paper form through digitizing or scanning, survey data
by the use of a global position system (GPS), and remotely
sensed data/Arial Photography and Satellite images/.
Cont…
 Non-spatial data or attributes are associated with the
feature but independent of all geometric considerations.
 Non-spatial data can also be stored along with the spatial data
represented by the coordinates of a vector geometry or the
position of a raster cell.
 Attribute data are additional characteristics of the spatial data
or the features.
 For example, non-spatial data that they are independent of the
location of the lake but describe further characteristics of the
lakes, including lakes depth, water quality, pollution level,
name, area, volume, and others.
 Data input in GIS contains entering the spatial data, and non-
spatial data, and linking the two together.
Cont…
Cont…
(d) People
 The people are the component that makes the GIS work.
 People associated with a GIS can be categorized into GIS users and
GIS specialists.
 GIS Users are people who use and View GIS data to browse a
geographic database for referential material, perform professional
services, and make decisions.
 GIS specialists are the people who make the GIS work.
 They are responsible for collecting, managing, and analyzing the
geographic data and provide technical support to other.
 Technical specialists who design and maintain the system, and people
who use GIS to perform their everyday activities are users of GIS.
 GIS technology has limited value without the people who manage the
system and develop plans for applying it
Cont…
(e) Methods
 Successful GIS operates according to well-designed plan
and rules, which are the models and operating practices
unique to each organization.
8.3. Arc Map and Main Tools
Objectives:
• master the basic steps of opening, saving and closing of
Arc Map document in a computer;
• describe the functions of main tools of Arc Map;
• use Arc Map menu to add, and display data; and
• map different geographical issues and distributions
Cont…
8.3.1. Opening, Saving and Closing Arc Map Documents
Arc Map is a program in which we add data, make maps, perform
analysis, edit GIS data, access Arc catalog and Arc Toolbox, use geo
processing tools, integrate GPS field data, etc.
 It is the primary application and interface associated with ArcGIS
software.
Map Exchange Documents (MXD) are Arc Map document
files that contain a map, specify the GIS data used (including pointers to
the file location for each dataset), display information (symbology and
labeling), and other elements used in Arc Map.
 An Arc Map document does not store data but rather only refers to the
data you use.
 When you “Add Data” to your map document, you only add a reference
to the original data source.
Cont…
How do you open Arc Map?
The Arc Map application is accessible by single clicking
on the Arc Map Icon in your start menu to open the
software.
You can double-click an Arc Map document (.mxd file) on
desktop short cut to start Arc Map with the desired map.
By default, Arc Map begins with a new, empty map
document
Cont…
How do you save a map in Arc Map?
After you finish working on a map, you can save it and exit
Arc Map.
You save a map as a document and store it on your hard disk.
Arc Map automatically appends a file extension (.mxd) to your
map document name.
You will need to provide a name and save it into a folder
location if you haven't saved the map before.
You can also save the map with its data using a map package,
which can be used to share your map and its related data with
other users
Cont…
How do you close an opened map in Arc Map?
 Click the File menu and click Close.
 Opening a new map also closes the current map.
8.3.2. Arc Map Main Tools and their Role
a. Arc Map Menus and Tools
1. New Project– Opens a new (blank) Arc Map Document.
(This creates a new .mxd file)
2. Open Project – Opens an existing document.
3. Save project– Saves the current Arc Map document.
 Please note the mxd does not contain any data directly,
rather it only links to the data being used.
 This may be important when sharing your .mxd file with
others who may need internet access for base data.
Cont…
4. Print–Print the map view.
5.Add layers – This tool allows a user to add GIS data to the
document.
 This data may be stored locally, accessed through a network or
provided as a service over the internet.
6. Edit function
7. Arc Catalog is used for GIS Data management tasks such as
creating new shape files, copy shape files, delete shape files and
others.
8. Arc Toolbox
9. Zoom in– allows a user to zoom into an area either by clicking
on the desired location or by holding the right mouse button and
drawing a rectangular box over the desired area of interest.
Cont…
10. Zoom out - allows a user to zoom out of an area either
by clicking on the desired location or by holding the right
mouse button and drawing a rectangular box over the
desired area of interest.
11 . Fixed zoom out-to indicate how much to zoom out to
the feature.
12. Fixed zoom in- to indicate how much to zoom in to the
feature
Cont…
13. Pan- Select the hand and pan the map view in the
desired direction
14. Full extent allows a user to expand the map view to the
full geographical extent of the data located within the
project.
15. Select element allows a user to choose a selection shape
(circle, rectangle, line or polygon) to select features of an
active data theme
16. Identify Select the identify button, and then select a data
theme by clicking on that theme and making it active.
 Use the identify tool to query the active data theme
Cont…
17. Find tool allows a user to perform a string query on any
data theme located within the map view.
18. Add XY-allows a user to drop a point and generate the
X, Y coordinate for a specific location in a map.
19 .The measure tool measures distance in specified units
from one location to another.
Cont…
b. Arc Toolbox
 Arc Toolbox is an integrated application developed by
environmental system research institute (Esri).
 It provides a reference to the toolboxes to facilitate user
interface in ArcGIS for accessing and organizing a collection
of geo processing tools, models and scripts.
 All Arc Toolbox tools support all data types, including geo
database, shape files and coverage.
Cont…
Toolboxes are containers for toolsets and tools required to perform any
advanced geo processing tasks are organized in a logical way.
A toolbox cannot contain another toolbox.
The common toolboxes present within Arc Toolbox are:
Analysis Toolbox provides a powerful set of tools to perform various
geo processing operations, such as overlays, create buffers, calculate
statistics, and perform proximity analysis of all types of vector data.
Cartography Toolbox designed to produce data and support map
production for specific maps in a way that meets a specific
cartographic standard.
Conversion Toolbox contains tools that convert data between various
formats.
Coverage Toolbox contains a powerful set of tools to perform various
geo processing operations that only use coverage as input and will
only output data as coverage.
Cont…
Data management Toolbox contains a rich and varied collection of
tools that are used to develop, manage, and maintain features classes,
datasets, layers; and raster data structures are grouped in this toolbox.
Geocoding Toolbox contains tools to assist in accomplishing
common geocoding tasks such as, creation, maintenance, and
deletion of address locators, as well as the actual geocoding of
addresses.
Linear Referencing Toolbox contains a series of tools for creating,
calibrating, and displaying the data used for linear referencing.
Spatial Analyst Toolbox contains tools to create, query, map, and
analyze cell-based raster data; perform integrated raster/vector
analysis; derive new information from existing data; query
information across multiple data layers; and fully integrate cell-based
raster data with traditional vector data sources
 Cont…
Toolsets
 are a logical container of tools and other toolsets.
 Tools are a single geo processing operation, including dialog, models and
scripts.
 A tool can be stored at toolbox level or within the toolset.
 Presence of Tools depends on the Extensions available.
 All the Toolboxes, Toolsets and Tools within the Arc Toolbox are sorted
alphabetically.
Arc Catalog
 is primarily used as a file manager, and to develop metadata for our GIS data.
 Metadata is information that explains your data to people who may want to use
it and understand the different field attributes associated with the data set, the
data projection, how the data set was created, any analysis performed on the
data set, etc.
 There are two ways to access Arc Catalog: as a standalone application from the
start menu or your desktop.
Cont…
Cont…
a. Adding Data
 One of the first steps performed when creating a new map
document is to add GIS data.
 This data could be local data that you have previously created, or
have been provided with; these formats could include shape file,
geo database, tabular data, or others.
 In addition, data can be sourced from the internet through data
providers or streamed through online data services.
 There are two primary methods of adding data to your opened
Arc Map Document.
 The first method is to use the Arc Catalog Window, browse your
data, and drag and drop the file into your project.
 The second method is to use the Add Data button.
Cont…
 To add data, we use the additional data pull-down menu
which has three commands.
 Add Data opens the add data dialog box, where you can
add local data, or connect to a known data server or
service.
 Add Base map opens the base map dialog box, where you
can select from a variety of pre-made base maps published
by ESRI and other groups.
 Add Data from Arc GIS Online opens the ArcGIS Online
portal, allowing you to browse through numerous base
maps and data services provided by any number of groups
Cont…
 When you want to add local data, you can use the Add
Data button on the Arc Map toolbar to add data to your
map.
 Click Add Data, browse to and select the data you want to
add, and then click Add.
 Once the data are added, you will notice that the data
layers are placed into the Table of Contents (TOC) in a
specific order.
 They are organized in the TOC by geometry type: Point
features are on top of line features, which are on top of
polygon features, and polygon features would be on top of
raster datasets
Cont…
b. Removing Data
 The instruction to remove data is given as follow.
 First locate the file you wish to remove in the Table of
Contents in Arc Map.
 The Table of Contents is the list of data layers that appears
on the left side of the Arc Map window.
 Secondly, make right-click on the file name for the layer
that you wish to remove and a context menu will appear.
 Choose Remove from the menu.
Cont…
c. Displaying Data
 Maps can be displayed in data view and layout view.
 Each view allows you to view and interact with the map in different ways.
 Data view provides a geographic window for exploring, displaying, and
querying the data on your map.
 You work in real-world coordinates and measurements in data view.
 Layout view allows working with the map layout elements, such as titles,
north arrows and scale bars, and along with the data frame, arranged on a
page.
 In layout view, you work primarily in page space (typically, inches or
centimeters) except when you are interacting with a data frame in your
layout.
 An alternative way to switch your display is to click View > Data View or
View > Layout View from the main menu in Arc Map.
Cont…
 Review Exercise
I. Answer the following Questions briefly .
1. What is relief? And what are the major relief features?
2.What is map? What is topographic map?
3. What is Hachure? Which features are commonly
illustrated by hachures?
4. What are the limitations of hachures?
5. What is contour?
6. What is Index contour? What are Intermediate contours?
7. How can we calculate the values b/n two consecutive
index contours?
 Matching Items
“A”
8. Contour lines forming concentric circles.
9. Two or more peaks shown by an elliptical contour lines.
10. They are shown on contour map by using contours that
point towards the lower ground.
11. The closed contour line always points upstream or toward
high ground.
12. A dip or low point b/n two areas of higher ground.
13. The contour lines on the slope merge into a single contour.
14. Contours roughly rectangular in shape.
15. On contour maps the values decreasing towards the center.
Cont…
“B”
A) Ridge
B) Valley
C) Depression
D) Plateau
E) Spur
F) Cliff
G) Saddle
H) Mountain Ranges
I) Hill
J) Fill
Cont…
16. What is drainage basin/ catchment areas?
17. Define source, mouth, confluence?
18.What is dendritic, radial, centripetal, and rectangular
drainage pattern?
19.What is GIS?
20. What are the components of GIS?
21. What are the importance/ benefits of GIS?
22. What are the two main methods used to store data in a
GIS?
23. What is Arc Map?
Cont…

The End
Thank you!