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Module 2

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12 views18 pages

Module 2

Uploaded by

sueana095
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MODULE-2

BRUTE FORCE
APPROACHES(conti…)
Exhaustive Search
• a brute-force approach to combinatorial problems.
• It suggests generating each and every element of the problem's
domain, selecting those of them that satisfy all the constraints, and
then finding a desired element.
• Examples for the Exhaustive Search
1.Traveling salesman problem
2. The knapsack problem
Traveling Salesman Problem (TSP)
Problem Statement: Find the shortest tour through a given set of n cities that
visits each city exactly once before returning to the city where it started.
• Modeled by a weighted graph, with the graph's vertices representing the
cities and the edge weights specifying the distances.
• The problem can be stated as the problem of finding the shortest Hamiltonian
circuit of the graph.
• A Hamiltonian circuit is defined as a cycle that passes through all the vertices
of the graph exactly once.
• A Hamiltonian circuit can also be defined as a sequence of 𝑛+1 adjacent
vertices 𝑣𝑖0,𝑣𝑖1,…,𝑣𝑖(𝑛−1),𝑣𝑖0 where the first vertex of the sequence is the
same as the last one, and all the other 𝑛−1 vertices are distinct.
Example problem
Knapsack Problem
• Given n items of known weights w1 , ... , Wn and values v1, ... , vn
and a knapsack of capacity W , find the most valuable subset of the
items that fit into the knapsack, such that the total weight does not
exceed 𝑊and the total value is maximized.
• The exhaustive-search approach to this problem leads to generating
all the subsets of the set of n items given, computing the total weight
of each subset to identify feasible subsets
Decrease-and-Conquer
• technique is based on exploiting the relationship between a solution
to a given instance of a problem and a solution to a smaller instance
of the same problem.
• Once such a relationship is established, it can be exploited either top
down (recursively) or bottom up (without a recursion).
• There are three major variations of decrease-and-conquer
1. Decrease by a constant
2. Decrease by a constant factor
3. Variable size Decrease
Decrease by CONSTANT(ONE)
• The size of an instance is reduced by the same constant on each
iteration of the algorithm. Typically, this constant is equal to one

Ex: n! ,,Topological sorting


Decrease-by-a-constant-factor
• Technique suggests reducing a problem's instance by the same
constant factor on each iteration of the algorithm.
variable-size-decrease
• variety of decrease-and-conquer, a size reduction pattern varies from
one iteration of an algorithm to another.
ex: Euclid's algorithm for computing the greatest common divisor
INSERTION SORT
• we consider sorting an array 𝐴[0..𝑛−1] using the decrease-by-one
technique.
• We assume the smaller problem of sorting the array 𝐴[0..𝑛−2] has
already been solved, giving us a sorted array of size 𝑛−1:
𝐴[0]≤...≤𝐴[𝑛−2]
• To solve the original problem, we need to find the appropriate position
for 𝐴[𝑛−1] in the sorted subarray and insert it there.
• This involves locating the correct insertion point for 𝐴[𝑛−1] among
the sorted elements and inserting it into its correct position.
To insert 𝐴[𝑛−1]] into its correct position in the sorted subarray
𝐴[0..𝑛−2] ,we have three reasonable alternatives:
1.Left-to-Right Scan:
1. Method: Scan the sorted subarray from left to right.
2. Process: Start at the beginning of the sorted subarray and move rightward
until you find the first element that is greater than or equal to 𝐴[𝑛−1]
3. Insertion: Insert 𝐴[𝑛−1] right before this element.
2.Right-to-Left Scan:
• Method: Scan the sorted subarray from right to left.
• Process: Start at the end of the sorted subarray and move leftward
until you find the first element that is smaller than or equal to 𝐴[𝑛−1].
• Insertion: Insert 𝐴[𝑛−1] right after this element.
3.Binary Search:
• Method: Use binary search to find the correct insertion point.
• Process: Perform a binary search on the sorted subarray to find the
position where 𝐴[𝑛−1]A[n−1] should be inserted.
ALGORITHM InsertionSort(A[0 .. n-1])
// Sorts a given array by insertion sort
// Input: An array A[0 .. n-1] of n orderable elements
// Output: Array A[0 .. n-1] sorted in nondecreasing order

for i <- 1 to n-1 do


v <- A[i]
j <- i-1
while j >= 0 and A[j] > v do
A[j + 1] <- A[j]
j <- j-1
A[j + 1] <- v
Topological Sorting
• . A directed graph( digraph) is a graph with directions specified for all
its edges
• There are only two notable differences between undirected and
directed graphs in representing them:
(1) the adjacency matrix of a directed graph does not have to be
symmetric
(2) An edge in a directed graph has just one corresponding nodes in
the digraph's adjacency lists.
• Topological sorting(ordering) for Directed Acyclic Graph (DAG) G = (V,
E), is a linear ordering of vertices such that for every directed
edge( u ,v), vertex u comes before v in the ordering.
• Topological sorting(ordering) can be done by using 2 algorithms
1. DFS traversal
2. Source removal method
Topological ordering by DFS traversal
• perform a DFS traversal and note the order in which vertices become
dead ends (i.e., are popped off the traversal stack). Reversing this
order yields a solution to the topological sorting problem
Source removal method

• The second algorithm is based on a direct implementation of the


decrease (by one )-and-conquer technique
1. Repeatedly ,Identify in a digraph a source, which is a vertex with no
incoming edges
2. delete it along with all the edges outgoing from it.
3. The order in which the vertices are deleted yields a solution to the
topological sorting problem.

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