Introduction

Temperature is one of the most influencing factor

in controlling the quality of a product in any
process/manufacturing industry.

It also plays an important role during

Experimentation which influences the other
variables in the experiment.
 Introduction
The precise measurement and control of
temperature is key factor in almost all the industries.

The temperature can be measured indirectly by

measuring the physical properties like pressure,
electrical properties, optical properties etc., as these
parameters change with the temperature.
Measurement of Temperature

• Relative Scales
– Fahrenheit (°F)
– Celsius (°C)

• Absolute Scales
– Rankine (°R)
– Kelvin (K)
 Temperature Relationships

(°F) = 9/5*(°C) +32

(°C) = 5/9*[(°F) –32]

(°F) = (°R) – 459.67

(°C) = (K) – 273.15

 Pyrometers

• Thermocouple
• Resistance
• Radiation and Optical
 Pyrometers

• Thermocouple
• Resistance
• Radiation and Optical
 Pyrometers

• Thermocouple
• Resistance
• Radiation and Optical
Classification of Temperature Measuring Instruments

Based on the changes produced in the physical

properties of a material due to the change in
temperature :

1.Expansion thermometers (Non-electrical)

2.Electrical thermometers
3.Radiation pyrometers.
 Classification of Temperature Measuring Instruments

1.Expansion thermometers (Non-electrical) :

Work on the principle of thermal expansion. Almost all materials
expand when they are subjected to temperature change. This
expansion may be due to change in physical dimensions or change
in physical properties like pressure, volume etc.

 Liquid in glass thermometers

 Bimetallic thermometers
 Pressure thermometers
Liquid filled
Gas filled
Vapour filled
 Classification of Temperature Measuring Instruments

2.Electrical thermometers :

work on the principle of change in some electrical

properties when they are subjected to temperature
change.

(i) Resistance thermometers

(ii) Thermocouples
 Classification of Temperature Measuring Instruments

3.Radiation pyrometers: In practice we need to

measure high temperatures which may melt the instrument when
brought in contact. Similarly it is difficult to measure temperature of
the moving bodies and temperature variations over the surface of an
object.

In such situations non – contact type temperature measuring

instruments are preferred.

(i) .Total Radiation Pyrometers.

(ii) .Optical Radiation Pyrometers

 1.Expansion thermometers (Non-electrical)
(a). Liquid in glass thermometers :
 1.Expansion thermometers (Non-electrical)
(a). Liquid in glass thermometers :

It consists of a large temperature

sensing bulb connected at one end of the
capillary tube and a smaller safety bulb
connected at the other end of the capillary.

The smaller bulb acts as a safety

reservoir when the temperature being
measured excess the measuring range
of the thermometer. A part of the capillary
tube and the sensing bulb are filled with a
liquid.
 1.Expansion thermometers (Non-electrical)
(a). Liquid in glass thermometers :

Operation: Sensing bulb is exposed to

medium whose temperature is to be
measured. The liquid in the sensing bulb
expands/contracts and rises/fall in the
capillary tube. This rise/fall in liquid level is
calibrated interms of the temperature.
 1.Expansion thermometers (Non-electrical)
(a). Liquid in glass thermometers :

Desirable Properties of Liquids :

 Should have large coefficient of expansion.

 Should not adhere to the capillary walls.

 Should have linear relationship between the

dimensional change &temperature.

Should be able to operate within a reasonable

temperature range without any phase change.

 Should be clearly visible

Cost of the liquid should be low.

 1.Expansion thermometers (Non-electrical)
(a). Liquid in glass thermometers :

Salient Features :

Portable in size

No need of auxiliary power

Good response, accuracy & Sensitivity

Low cost and simplicity in use

Fragile construction

Remote indication is not possible

Range is limited to about 650°C

High time lag.

 1.Expansion thermometers (Non-electrical)
(b) .Bimetallic thermometers :

When two metals of different coefficients of thermal

expansion are brazed together, a change in temperature causes a

change in the physical dimensions. The change in physical dimension is

a measure of temperature.
 1.Expansion thermometers (Non-electrical)
(b) .Bimetallic thermometers :

It consists of two metal strips of different coefficient of thermal

expansions bonded together to form as a single strip as shown in Fig.

When the Bi-metallic strip is subjected to a temperature lower than the

bonding temperature, it will bend in one direction and when it is subjected

to a temperature higher than the bonding temperature, it bends in the

other direction.
 1.Expansion thermometers (Non-electrical)
(b) .Bimetallic thermometers :
radius of curvature of a bi-metallic strip

r - Radius of curvature of the bent bimetallic strip.

t - Combined thickness of the bonded strip
n - Ratio of moduli of elasticity of low to high expansion metals
m - Ratio of thickness of low to high expansion metals
Low coefficient of expansion / °c
High coefficient of expansion / °c
To -Initial bonding temperature °c
T - Temperature which is to be measured in °c
 1.Expansion thermometers (Non-electrical)
(b) .Bimetallic thermometers :
 1.Expansion thermometers (Non-electrical)
(b) .Pressure Thermometers:
 2.Electrical Thermometers
(a) .Resistance Thermometers:

The resistance of an electrical conductor is given by,

Any instrument which utilizes the change in resistance to indicate

the temperature is popularly known as resistance thermometer.

i. Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) (pure metal resistors).

ii. Thermistor (Semiconductor resistors).

 2.Electrical Thermometers
(i) .Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) (pure metal resistors).

Most metals become more resistance to the passage of electric

current as they become hotter .

i.e., their resistance increases with increase in temperature

R = Resistance of the conductor at temperature T

Ro = Resistance of the conductor at reference temperature To
a & b = Temperature Coefficient of resistances which the conductor
material.
 2.Electrical Thermometers
(i) .Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) (pure metal resistors).

If the reference temperature is 'zero',

The number of constant's to be considered in the equation

depends on the material, the accuracy required, and the
temperature range.
Platinum conductor requires 2 constants and
Nickel, copper conductors require 3 constants,
Tungsten and nickel alloys require only one constant.
 2.Electrical Thermometers
(i) .Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) (pure metal resistors).

Description :

The resistive element of a RTD is generally a metal wire wound

around an electrically insulating material such as glass, ceramic or
Mica. The wound element is then placed in a protective enclosure
made of molten glass.
 2.Electrical Thermometers
(i) .Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) (pure metal resistors).

Description :

Resistance element of a RTD may also constructed by depositing a

platinum or metal-glass slurry on a ceramic substrate. The film is
then etched and sealed to form the resistance element. The
resistance element made by this process is cheaper than the
resistive element formed, by a wire winding. However the accuracy
of the RTD made by former element is not accurate.
 2.Electrical Thermometers
(i) .Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) (pure metal resistors).

Working :

When the resistive element is subjected to the environment whose

temperature is to be measured, the resistance of the element gets
changed. A bridge circuit of either null type or deflection type is
used to measure the change in resistance which is indicative of the
temperature.
 2.Electrical Thermometers
(i) .Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) (pure metal resistors).

Various resistance element materials and their characteristics:

 2.Electrical Thermometers
(i) .Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD) (pure metal resistors).
Desirable properties of sensing materials used in RTD:
It should permit the fabrication in convenient sizes.
It should have high coefficient of resistance.
It should be corrosive resistant
It should not undergo phase change at high temperatures
in the range.
It should have low cost.
Salient Features of RTD
1.Simplicity in design
2. Remote sensing is possible
3. Good accuracy
4. Easy installation and replacement
5. For low values of temperatures linear relation between T and R
exists.
6. Resistance of elements other than sensing element also changes,
which causes error reading.
 2.Electrical Thermometers
(ii) . Thermistors (Semiconductor Resistance Sensors) :

Principle: When a semiconductor material is subjected to increase in

temperature, its resistance decreases.

A resistance thermometer which uses semiconductor as the

sensing element is called thermistor.
Thermistors have negative temperature coefficient of resistance
in contrast to the positive temperature coefficient of resistance
exhibited by RTD.
 2.Electrical Thermometers
(i) . Thermistors (Semiconductor Resistance Sensors) :

The variation of resistance with temperature is exponential and is

given by

R = Resistance at Temperature T
Ro = Resistance at the reference temperature
β = A constant which is determined experimentally
 2.Electrical Thermometers
(i) . Thermistors (Semiconductor Resistance Sensors) :

Construction and Working:

Thermistors are composed of sintered mixture of metallic oxides

such as manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron and uranium.

These metal oxides are milled and mixed in appropriate

proportions with binders and finally pressed into the desired
shapes.

Thermistors are commercially available in different shapes such

as beads, rods, washers and discs etc.
 2.Electrical Thermometers
(i) . Thermistors (Semiconductor Resistance Sensors) :
Operation:
When the thermistor is subjected to a medium whose temperature
is to be I measured, its resistance gets changed according to the
exponential law given by the equation .

 A bridge circuit is employed to measure the resistance which is

the direct measure of temperature of the medium.
 2.Electrical Thermometers
(i) . Thermistors (Semiconductor Resistance Sensors) :

Salient Features:
Thermistors are extremely sensitive devices.
They have large temperature coefficient.
Accurate measurement is possible.
They have enough ability to withstand electrical and mechanical
stresses.
Good operating range i.e. .100 °c to 300°C.
Low cost.
Compact in size & rugged construction.
Highly non-linear temperature characteristics.
Problems of self heating.
 Comparison between RTD and Thermistor:
RTD THERMISTOR

Made of metals which are good Made of metallic oxides such as

conductors of electricity (copper, cobalt, magnesium, nickel.
platinum, nickel).

-100°C to 650°C. -50°C to 300°C.

Resistance change is small, Resistance change is large.

positive and linear negative and nonlinear

Positive temperature coefficient of Negative temperature coefficient of

Resistance resistance

Have better reproducibility and low Have less reproducibility and more
hysteresis hysteresis

Bigger in size. Quite small in size

Used for measurement purpose. Used for control purpose.

 Comparison between RTD and Thermistor:
RTD THERMISTOR
Made of Metals -copper, Metallic oxides - cobalt,
platinum, nickel etc., magnesium, nickel.

-100°C to 650°C.
Range -50°C to 300°C.
small, positive and
Resistance change linear large. negative and
nonlinear
Positive
Temperature coefficient Negative
of resistance
Better
Reproducibility Less
Low
Hysteresis More
Bigger
Size Quite small in size
Used for measurement
Purpose. Used for control purpose.
 2.Electrical Thermometers
(i) . Thermocouples :

The most commonly used electrical temperature measuring

instrument is thermocouple.
The basic principles associated with thermocouple are:

Seebeck Effect
Peltier Effect
Thomson Effect
 2.Electrical Thermometers
(i) . Thermocouples :
Seebeck Effect :
When two dissimilar metals are joined together as shown in
Fig with one junction at temperature TI and other junction at

temperature T2 an emf will be generated which is primarily a

function of junction temperature. This phenomenon is called
"Seebeck Effect".
 2.Electrical Thermometers
(i) . Thermocouples :

Peltier Effect: If two dissimilar metals are connected to an external

circuit in such a way that a small current is drawn, the emf of the
circuit may be altered slightly. This phenomenon is called Peltier
Effect.
 2.Electrical Thermometers
(i) . Thermocouples :

Thomson Effect: If the temperature gradiant exists along either or

both of the conductors of a thermocouple circuit, junction emf may
undergo an additional slight change. This phenomenon is called
Thomson effect.
 2.Electrical Thermometers
(i) . Thermocouples :

Laws of Thermocouple:
(a) Law of Intermediate Metals: If a third metal is introduced into
the thermocouple circuit as shown in Fig. there will be no change
in the emf of the circuit provided the two new thermo junctions
formed by the third metal are maintained at same temperature.
 2.Electrical Thermometers
(i) . Thermocouples :
(b) .Law of Intermediate Temperatures
It states that if a thermocouple circuit generates an emf E 1

when it is operating between temperatures T1and T2, and it

generates an emf E2 when the junctions are maintained at T2 and T3

then the same thermocouple generates an emf = E 1+ E2 when it is

operating between temperatures T1 and T3

Construction and Working:

Theoretically any two dissimilar conductor materials could be used to

form a thermocouple circuit.
 But in actual practice there are some materials which will give better
performance.
 Thermocouple may be prepared by twisting two wires together and
brazing as shown in figure
 Construction and Working:

The wire size depends on the temperature to be measured. Usually,

higher the temperature to be measured, larger the wire size.
 However increase in wire size increases time response of the
thermocouple.
Bare thermocouples are used to measure low temperatures. However
to measure high temperatures, the thermocouples are provided with
some form of protective insulations.
Operation: The hot junction of the thermocouple is exposed to the
environment whose temperature is to be measured. Due to
temperature gradient at the two junctions, an emf is developed
whose magnitude is in millivolts.
The output voltage of a thermocouple is given by

Where
A and B are constants for a given thermocouple
T and To are the hot junction and cold junction temperatures respectively
which are in kelvin.
E is the output voltage in µv.
Thermocouple materials and their range of application:
 Series and Parallel Combinations of Thermocouples:
Thermopiles:
When thermocouples are connected in series as shown in fig. the
resulting circuit is called a Thermopile.
If there are 'n' thermocouples connected in series, then the circuit
output is equal to sum of the emfs of the individual thermocouples.
If all those 'n' thermocouples are identical, then the output of the
thermopile is given by,
Output of thermopile = n x output of a single thermocouple
 Thermocouples Connected in Parallel:

Parallel connection is generally used when the average

temperature of more points is required.
 Radiation Methods (Pyrometers) :

All the methods of Temperature measurement discussed

in the previous sections are contact type of instruments. But in
practice we need to measure high temperatures which may melt
the instrument when brought in contact.

Similarly it is difficult to measure temperature of the

moving bodies and temperature variations over the surface of an
object. In such situations non – contact type temperature
measuring instruments are preferred.
Total Radiation Pyrometer:
If any pyrometer that utilizes the total radiation emitted by a.
hot body for measuring the temperature, then it is called "Total
Radiation Pyrometer". The term "total radiation" includes both
visible (light) and invisible (infrared) radiation.

Optical Pyrometer

It is the most accurate of all radiation pyrometers.

The principle of this instrument is based on Planck's distribution
law which states that
The emissive radiation energy of a black body varies with
the wavelength. In other words the radiant intensity (Brightness)
varies with the temperature at a given wavelength (λ).
 Radiation Methods (Pyrometers) :

 Pyrometry deals with the measurement of elevated

temperatures generally above 500°C.
 The instrument used to measure such high temperature are
called pyrometers.
 Radiation pyrometers , make use of the radiation emitted
from the hot body. For any body at temperature above 550OC, the
Intensity of thermal radiation emitted from the body is sufficient to
measure its temperature.
Radiation Pyrometers are of two types:
1. Total Radiation Pyrometers.
2. Optical Radiation Pyrometers.
Total Radiation Pyrometer:
If any pyrometer that utilizes the total radiation emitted by a.
hot body for measuring the temperature, then it is called "Total
Radiation Pyrometer". The term "total radiation" includes both
visible (light) and invisible (infrared) radiation.

According to the Stefan-Boltzman law, the total radiation energy

emitted by the black body is proportional to the fourth power of its
absolute temperature.
Total Radiation Pyrometer:
 Total Radiation Pyrometer:

It consists of a blackened tube T, completely opened at one end to

receive the radiations emitted by a hot body whose temperature is to be
measured. The other end of the tube T is provided with an aperture (sighting
hole) fitted with an adjustable eye piece.
 Total Radiation Pyrometer:

Inside the tube T, a concave mirror M is fitted whose position

can be adjusted with the help of a rack and pinion arrangement as
shown in the fig. This concave mirror focuses the incoming radiations
onto the temperature sensing element which is generally a
Thermocouple.
 Total Radiation Pyrometer:

This thermocouple is connected to a calibrated Milli voltmeter to

indicate temperature directly. A protecting radiation shield is provided to
see that the incoming radiations do not fall directly on the temperature
sensing element .
Working:
Working:
 The open end of the tube (T) is focused onto the radiating body
whose temperature is to be measured.
 The radiations emitted from the hot body enters the tube. With
the help of sighting hole, and the rack and pinion arrangement, the
concave mirror 'M' is adjusted so that the incoming radiations fall on the
concave mirror.
Working:
 The radiations falling on the mirror (M) reflected onto
the hot junction of the thermocouple. The reflection of radiation onto the
thermocouple can also be done using a lens or a parabolic reflector as
shown in the Fig.

The millivoltmeter connected to the thermocouple measures emf of the

circuit which is the direct indication of the temperature.
Applications:
Total radiation pyrometer is used to measure temperatures ranging
from 700°C to 2000 °c .

Salient Features:
It is a non contact type temperature measuring device.
Its speed of response is high.
It can be used to measure temperatures of moving objects also.
Its accuracy is high (around :t 2% of the scale range)
The presence of dust. smoke and gases betwecn the radiating object
and the concave
mirror results in an crror reading (i:e. low reading) of the instrument.
It has low sensitivity at low tcmperature range.
It cannot be used for temperatures below 600°C.
Optical Pyrometer

It is the most accurate of all radiation pyrometers.

The principle of this instrument is based on Planck's distribution law
which states that the emissive radiation energy of a black body varies
with the wavelength. In other words the radiant intensity (Brightness)
varies with the temperature at a given wavelength (λ).
According to the Planck's distribution equation.
The optical pyrometer measures the radiant intensity at one or two
specific wavelengths.

one color pyrometer -The pyrometer measures the energy at one

wavelength
Two color pyrometer -It measures the energy at two wavelengths,.

One type of optical pyrometer is the disappearing filament one

color optical pyrometer.
In this, the pyrometer identifies the temperature by comparing
the color of the radiation emitted by the hot body with the calibrated
radiating source. As the surface is heated, it becomes, dark-red, orange
and finally white in color.
According to Wien's law The maximum points in the black body radiation
curves shift. To shorter wavelengths with increase in temperature.

λ max=wavelength at which maximum points in the curve occur

Description & Working:
Description & Working:

The radiation from the hot body is viewed through the lens and the
radiation passing through the objective lens is made to pass through an
absorption filter.

Absorption filter reduces intensity of the incoming radiation so that the

standard lamp may be operated at lower levels.
Description & Working:

A standard lamp is placed in the optical path of the incoming radiation in

between the eyepiece and objective lens.

The red filter is installed in the eyepiece in order to allow only

monochromatic radiation at wavelengths around 0.65 µ to the observer.
Description & Working:

The color of the standard lamp is made to match with the color of the
incoming radiation by controlling the lamp current.

The reading of the ammeter at matching condition is the measure of

temperature of the body.
Description & Working:

If the filament is cooler than the temperature source, then the filament
appears dark as shown in Fig. (a).

If the filament is hotter than the temperature source, then the filament
appears bright as shown in Fig. (b).

If the filament temperature and the hot body temperature are same,
then the filament disappears as shown in Fig. (c).
 Applications:
lt is used to measure the temperature of molten metals.
 It is used to measure the temperature of furnaces.

Salient Features:
It is a non contact type instrument.
Accuracy is high (i.e.± 5 °c)
It is easy to operate.
Temperatures more than 700°C can only be measured.