Transducers

for
Displacement Measurement
 Transducers

A device that transform input physical variables into a

convenient and more usual form of output is called a

transducer
 Transducers
• Sensor is an element which first detects the
measurand and, it is in contact with the process.

Examples:
Diaphragm
spindle of a dial
gauge.

• If sensor is used to transduce the measurand, then

the sensor is called "detector transducer".

• Types : Mechanical
Electrical
 Transducers

Classification:

1. Primary / Secondary transducers.

2. Active /Passive transducers.

3. Analog/ Digital transducers

4. Mechanical, Electrical and Opto- electrical

transducers.
 1.Primary and Secondary Transducers

Primary Transducers :
A transducer that reacts directly to the change in the
quantity to be measured .
Ex :
Diaphragm in a pressure gauge

Secondary Transducers :
If an element which converts the output from the
primary transducer into more usable form, frequently to an
electrical signal .
Ex :
Capacitance transducer attached to a Bellows gauge
 2.Active and Passive Transducers :
Active Transducers :

An active transducer is a self-generating type transducer

that can produce an electrical voltage or current output without
utilizing any external power source.
Ex :
Piezoelectric and Photovoltaic transducers

Passive Transducers :

The energy required for signal conversion is entirely

taken from an auxiliary power source .
Ex :
Resistance Thermometer,
LVDT
 3.Analog and Digital Transducers :

Analog Transducers :
If the variation of output is continuous with the
variation of input
Ex :
Bourdon tube pressure gauge

Digital Transducers :
If the variation of output is discrete or vary in steps with
the variation of input

Ex :
Photo electric pick-up for speed measurement
 4.Mechanical, Electrical and Optical Transducers

Mechanical Transducers :

Which convert input signal into an output signal which is

often displacement. This displacement inturn can be indicated by
the movement of a pointer-on a calibrated scale .
Ex : Bourdon tube pressure gauge,
Mercury-in-glass thermometer.

Electro-Mechanical transducers :

Which convert mechanical quantities such as displacement,

velocity, force, pressure, torque and temperature into electrical
quantities such as a change in resistance, inductance, capacitance,
voltage, etc
 4.Mechanical, Electrical and Optical Transducers

Electro-optical Transducers :

Which combine optical, electronic and electrical

principles.

There are some light sensitive materials which

change their electrical properties when subjected to light.

The output is mainly a function of intensity of the

incident light. Hence when a light source is attached to a
moving object, the output can be related to the movement of
the body.
Advantages and Limitations of Electrical/Electronic Transducers
Over Mechanical Transducers :

Advantages :

1.Mass and inertia effects are minimized.

2. Amplification (or) attenuation is easy.

3. The effect of friction is minimized.

4. They are compact in size.

5. Remote indication is possible.

6. Power consumption is less and loading errors

are minimum.
Advantages and Limitations of Electrical/Electronic Transducers
Over Mechanical Transducers :

Limitations :

1. Fragile construction.

2. They need external power supply.

3. Instrument electrical properties may change the actual

reading of the variable which is to be measured.
Classification of Transducers based on the Principle of Operation

l.Variable resistance transducers.

2.Variable inductance transducers.

3.Variable capacitance transducers.

4.Piezo electric transducers.

5.Photo-electric (or) Light detecting transducers.

(a)Photo emissive
(b)Photo conductive
(c)Photo voltaic

6.Ionisation transducers.
Variable Resistance Transducers
 1.Variable resistance transducers

Resistance of an electrical conductor is given by

.

Where,
R = Resistance
 = Resistivity of the conductor
L= Length of the conductor in
A = Cross sectional Area of the metal conductor

The electrical resistance can be varied by varying

(i) Length
(ii) Cross sectional Area.
(iii) Resistivity or combination of these.
 1.Variable resistance transducers

.
Principle :
A change in resistance of a circuit due to the displacement
of an object is the measure of displacement of that object.
 1.Variable resistance transducers

Potentiometric Transducers (Sliding Contact Devices) :

These transducers convert mechanical displacement (input)

into an electrical output. i.e. either voltage or current.

A resistance potentiometer called as 'POT' consists of a

resistive element provided with a sliding contact. Usually, the
resistance element is formed by winding a resistance wire around an
insulating core or base.

Wire material: Copper- nickel

Nickel-chromium
Silver-Palladium.
 1.Variable resistance transducers

Potentiometric Transducers (Sliding Contact Devices) :

1.In operation, the guide rod is connected to the body whose
displacement is to be measured.

2.The motion of the guide rod sweeps the slider on the

potentiometer.

3.The length of the conductor i.e. Resistance is proportional to

the position of the slider.
 1.Variable resistance transducers
Potentiometric Transducers (Rolling Contact Devices) :
To measure the angular displacements, the resistance element is
formed into an arc as shown in Fig.

When the shaft rotates, the slider which is attached to the shaft
sweeps past the resistance element, thus changing the resistance
of the circuit.

The change in resistance is the measure of displacement of the

object.
Variable Inductance Transducers
 Variable Inductance Transducers

Inductance
the tendency of an electrical conductor to
oppose a change in the electric current
flowing through it. The flow of electric
current creates a magnetic field around the
conductor.

•It consists of magnetic field and core such that a gap exists
between the core and the field coils.

•If the reluctance of a magnetic circuit is altered, then

both the inductance and inductive reactance of the coils in the
circuit get changed.

the opposition offered by a magnetic circuit to the production

reluctance of magnetic flux. It is the property of the material that opposes the
creation of magnetic flux in a magnetic circuit.
 Variable Inductance Transducers

The Inductance can be varied by changing any one of the following

parameters

1. Effective permeability.
2. Area of cross section of the coil.
3. Length of the coil.
4. Number of turns in the coil.
 Variable Inductance Transducers

Classification:
1. Variable self-inductance transducers. (Single Coil)
2. Variable mutual inductance transducers ( Two coil and Three coil)
 Variable self Inductance Transducers

• When the input (displacement) is given to the armature,

the permeance of the flux path generated by the coil gets changed,
there by changing the inductance.

• The change in flux path is mainly due to change in the air gap.
 Variable self Inductance Transducers

Relative inductance of the two coils get changed when

the core or armature is given a movement.
 Variable Mutual Inductance Transducers
These transducers use multiple coils.
The mutual Inductance between two coils is given by

The mutual inductance can be altered either by changing the self

inductance (or) the coefficient of coupling.
 Variable Mutual Inductance Transducers
Coil 1 is excited by an external source of alternating current.
The flux coupling of the output coil 2 (pickup coil) depends on the
air gap.

In operation, when the armature is connected to a member

whose displacement is to be measured, the air gap gets altered
resulting a change in the output voltage of coil 2.

The change in output voltage of the pickup coil is the

measure of displacement of the member.
 LVDT
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
 LVDT
Linear Variable Differential Transformer
It is a Three coil Variable mutual inductance transducer
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

LVDT is a three coil variable mutual inductance transducer.

i.e.,one primary coil (P) and two secondary coils S1 and S2

which are symmetrically placed with respect to the primary coil as shown.

It converts linear displacement into an electrical signal .

i.e. voltage
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

The number of turns in each secondary coil are same and are
wound on a cylindrical former.

 A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former.

.
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

 Iron core is generally made of high permeability Nickel-iron material

which is hydrogen annealed and is attached to the body whose
displacement is to be measured.

The entire assembly is placed inside a housing.

 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

When an a.c current is supplied to the primary coil, an alternating

magnetic field is genetated in the circuit.

 This magnetic field is disturbed by the armature which is connected to

a moving body.

A voltage is developed in the two secondary coils due to the

disturbances in the magnetic field
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

As the two secondary coils are connected in series, the output is equal
to the algebraic sum of the voltages developed in the two secondary
coils.
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

As the two secondary coils are connected in series, the output is equal
to the algebraic sum of the voltages developed in the two secondary
coils.
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Condition
ES1=ES2 ES1>ES2 ES2>ES1
Output
voltage
zero ES1-ES2 ES2-ES1
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Operation:
when the core is at the centre, the flux linkages with both the secondary
coils are same and hence equal emfs are induced in them, giving zero
output voltage.
i.e., ES1= ES2

Output=zero

The position of the core at zero output voltage is called null position.
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Operation:
When the core is moved to the left of the null position, more magnetic
field linkages occurs with the winding S1 and less with the winding S2.

i.e., ES1> ES2

output = ES1- ES2

 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Operation:
Similarly when the core is moved to the right of the null position, more
magnetic field linkages occurs with the winding S2 . and less with S1.
i.e.,ES2 > ESI

output = ES2 -ES1 ,

which is in phase with ES2.

 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Different core positions and the corresponding output voltages are shown below.

Advantages of LVDT :

1. The output voltage of an LVDT and the input displacement have

a linear relationship for displacements upto 5 cm
 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Advantages of LVDT :

1.The output voltage of an LVDT and the input displacement have

a linear relationship for displacements upto 5 mm

2.High resolution.

3.High output voltage.

4.High sensitivity.

5.Rugged construction.

6.As there are no sliding contacts, friction is minimum.

7.Low Hysteresis and hence repeatability is high.

8.Low power consumption.

 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Disadvantages of LVDT :

I.LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields.

2.Dynamic response is limited.

3.Temperature effects the performance of the transducer.

 Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)

Applications of LVDT :

1.It can be used to measure displacements ranging from fractions of

mm to a few centimetres.

2.It can be used as a secondary transducer in the measurement of

force, weight, pressure etc .
 RVDT
Rotary Variable Differential Transformer
It is also a Three coil Variable mutual inductance transducer
 Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)

It is similar to the LVDT except that its core is cam shaped and may be

rotated between the windings by means of a shaft.

 Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)

Null position ACW CW

Conditio
n
ES1=ES2 ES1>ES2 ES2>ES1
Output
voltage
zero ES1-ES2 ES2-ES1
 Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)

At the null position of the core the output voltages of the secondary
windings S1 and S2 are equal and opposition.

Therefore, the net output is zero.

 Any angular displacement from the null position will result in a

differential voltage output.

The greater this angular displacement, the greater will be the

differential output. Hence the response of the transducer is linear.
 Rotary Variable Differential Transformer (RVDT)

Clockwise rotation produces an increasing voltage of 'a secondary

winding of one phase while counter clock-wise rotation produces an
increasing voltage of opposite phase.

 Hence, the amount of angular displacement and its direction may be

obtained from the magnitude and phase of the output voltage of the
transducer.
Capacitive Transducers
 Capacitive Transducers

 A Capacitor consists two or more metal plate

conductors which are separated by a medium.

 When a voltage is applied across the plates, equal

and opposite electric charges are generated on the plates.
 Capacitive Transducers
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is given by
 Capacitive Transducers

Any phenomenon that causes a change in any of the

parameters of equation can be measured by measuring
change in the capacitance of the capacitor.
Capacitive Transducers
 Capacitive Transducers
1.Change of Capacitance with Change in Area of
Overlap :
a. Parallel Plate Capacitive Transducer :

It consists of a fixed plate and a moving plate.

Moving plate is connected to the moving object whose

displacement is being measured
 Capacitive Transducers
1.Change of Capacitance with Change in Area of
Overlap :
a. Parallel Plate Capacitive Transducer :

 When the overlapping area of plates changes in accordance with the

displacement of the moving object, the capacitance of the capacitive
transducer gets changed.
 Capacitive Transducers
1.Change of Capacitance with Change in Area of
Overlap :
a. Parallel Plate Capacitive Transducer :

Capacitance of a parallel two plate capacitor is given by

 Capacitive Transducers
1.Change of Capacitance with Change in Length of
Overlap :
b. Cylindrical Capacitive Transducer :

The capacitance of a cylindrical capacitor is given by

Where,
L=Overlapping length between the fixed cylinder & movable tube
 Capacitive Transducers
1.Change of Capacitance with Change in Length of
Overlap :
b. Cylindrical Capacitive Transducer :

In operation,
When the tube moves left, the overlapping length increases there by
increasing the capacitance.

 Similarly if it moves right, then overlapping length decreases there by

decreasing the capacitance of the capacitor.

The measure of change in capacitance directly indicates the

displacement of the object.
 Capacitive Transducers

Variation of capacitance with the displacement of a capacitor working

on the principle of change in overlapping area/length with the
displacement :
 Capacitive Transducers
Measurement of Angular displacement (changing the overlapping area):

It consists of one fixed plate and one movable plate as shown in the
figure.

 The movable plate is attached to the object whose angular

displacement is to he measured.
 Capacitive Transducers
Measurement of Angular displacement (changing the overlapping area):

Angular displacement of the movable plate changes the overlapping

area, there by changing the capacitance of the capacitor.

The capacitance is maximum when the two plates overlap completely

i.e. when
θ = 180°.
 Capacitive Transducers
Measurement of Angular displacement (changing the overlapping area):
 Capacitive Transducers
Measurement of Distance between the plates :

When the movable plate moves towards the fixed plate, distance
between them reduces there by increasing the capacitance of the circuit.

 If the movable plate moves away from the fixed plate,. distance (t)
between them increases there by reducing the capacitance of the circuit.
 Capacitive Transducers
Advantage :

1. Capacitive transducers are extremely sensitive

3. They have good frequency response and hence they are very useful
for dynamic
studies.
4. Loading effects are minimum.
5. The capacitive transducers can he used for applications where stray
magnetic
fields render the inductive transducers useless.
6. As they require small forces for their operation, they need less power.
7. They have good operating range (is 0.1 x 1O -6mm to 30
m).
 Capacitive Transducers
Disadvantages :
1. All Metallic parts of the capacitor must be insulated.
2. The capacitive transducers show non linear behaviour on account
of edge effects.
Therefore guard rings must he used to eliminate this effect.
Applications :
1 Capacitive transducers can be used to measure Force &
Pressure.
2. They are used in liquid level measurements.
3. These transducers are also used in the measurement of volume,
density and weight.
4. Capacitive transducer are used to measure humidity of gases.
Change of Capacitance with Change in Dielectric Constant.

It consists of two fixed plates and a movable dieiectric material.

 Dielectric material is attached to an object whose displacement is to
be measured.
Change of Capacitance with Change in Dielectric Constant.

At x =0. capacitance of the transducer is

 Change of Capacitance with Change in Dielectric Constant.

When the dielectric material is displaced by a distance 'x' to the right,

the capacitance changes from C to C + ΔC.
Change of Capacitance with Change in Dielectric Constant.

Change in capacitance is proportional to displacement

 Piezoelectric Transducers:

Certain materials can generate an electrical charge when

subjected to mechanical strain or conversely they can change their
dimensions when subjected to voltage. This phenomenon is known as
'piezoelectric effect'.
The materials exhibiting this property are called piezo electric materials
Classification of Piezoelectric materials

1.Natural crystals -Quartz, Rochelle salt and Tourmaline.

2. Synthetic crystals - Lithium Sulphate, Ammonium dihydrogen
phosphate and Potassium tartarate.
3. Polarized ferroelectric ceramics -Barium titanate, and certain polymer
films.
 Piezoelectric Transducers:

Desirable Properties of Piezoelectric Materials:

1. They should have stability.
2. They should give high output.
3. They must be insensitive to temperature extremes and humidity.
4. They must have ability to be formed into any desired shape.
 Piezoelectric Transducers:
Principle :when the piezoelectric crystals distorted, they produce an
electrical charge.
The most widely used piezoelectric crystals are quartz, barium titanate.

Where, Q is the charge in coulombs

F is the applied force, N
K is the charge sensitivity
 Piezoelectric Transducers:
The charge at the electrodes gives rise to a voltage.
If C is the capacitance between the electrodes, then

If g & p are known then the thickness of crystal can be obtained by

knowing the output voltage of the circuit.
 Piezoelectric Transducers:
Advantages of Piezoelectric Transducers:
1. They have High frequency response.
2. They have high output.
3. They are compact in size & rugged construction.
4. They can be used to measure dynamic quantities.
Disadvantages:
1. They cannot be used for measurement of static quantities.
2. Output of a piezoelectric transducer is affected by changes in the
temperature.
3. Steady state response is poor.
Applications:
Piezoelectric transducers are most often used for the measurement of
acceleration, pressure force.
 Photoelectric Transducers (Light - Detecting Transducers) :

Operating principle -When a light beam exposed on to special

combination of materials, an electrical signal is generated.
The magnitude of electrical signal depends on the intensity of
light falling on the material.
The intensity of the light striking the special material (transducer)
is a function of displacement.

The piezo-electric transducers are classified into three types.

(a) Photo-emissive transducer

(b) Photo-conductive transducer
(c) Photo-voltaic transducer
(d) Ionisation Transducer
Photo-emissive-When a light beam exposed on to special combination of
materials, electrons are emitted
Photo-conductive-Which change their resistance when exposed to light.

Photo-voltaic-When light strikes a junction of certain dissimilar metal a

voltage is generated.

Ionisation-When two electrodes are placed in an ionised gas, voltage is

developed across them
 Photoelectric Transducers (Light - Detecting Transducers) :

(a) Photo-emissive transducer

Principle-When a light beam exposed on to special combination of

materials, electrons are emitted.
Therefore, a current flow is produced in the circuit ( the emitted
electrons attracted towards the anode).
 The arrangement consist of a glass tube in which anode and cathode
are enclosed.
 Photoelectric Transducers (Light - Detecting Transducers) :

(a) Photo-emissive transducer

This glass tube is usually filled with an insert gas.

 The current produced in the circuit is proportional to the intensity of
radiation.
The cathode of photo-emissive transducer made with an oxidised silver
base and is covered with a very thin film of cesium.
 Photoelectric Transducers (Light - Detecting Transducers) :

(a) Photo-emissive transducer

The electrons emitted from the cathode of photomultiplier are not

immediately drawn to the anode. But, they are attracted, to another
electrode, the dynode D1.

When the incident electrons strikes D1, it emits secondary electrons.

The electrons from D1 are attracted to the dynode D2 and at the end all
are collected by anode, producing current I
 Photoelectric Transducers (Light - Detecting Transducers) :

(b) Photo-codnuctive transducer

Photoconductive effect -There are some materials like cadmium

selenide, lead sulphide, doped germanium etc. which change their
resistance when exposed to light.
When light strikes the semiconductor material, there is a
decrease in the resistance of the material, there by producing an
increase in the current
 Photoelectric Transducers (Light - Detecting Transducers) :

(b) Photo-codnuctive transducer

It consists of a thin layer of light sensitive material coated between two
electrodes on a glass plate.
An ammeter is incorporated into the circuit to measure the change in
current in-the circuit, in accordance with change in resistance of the
photo conductive cell.
Photo conductive transducers are used for radiant measurements at all
wavelengths.
 Photoelectric Transducers (Light - Detecting Transducers) :

(a) Photo-Voltaic transducer:

Principle-When light strikes a junction of certain dissimilar metal a voltage

is generated.
The cell consists of a sandwich of unlike materials such as
I) a base metal,
2) a layer of semiconductor material (selenium) and
3) a thin transparent metal layer.
 Photoelectric Transducers (Light - Detecting Transducers) :

(a) Photo-Voltaic transducer:

When the cell is exposed to light, a voltage is generated across the

sandwich.
It does not require any auxiliary power source.
 Photoelectric Transducers (Light - Detecting Transducers) :

(a) Photo-Voltaic transducer:

The output of the cell is low and is not a linear function of input (light).
The most common application of photovoltaic cell is in the light
exposure meter in photographic work.
Other name of this transducer is solar cell.
 Photoelectric Transducers (Light - Detecting Transducers) :

(a) Ionisation transducer:

Principle-When two electrodes are placed in an ionised gas, voltage is

developed across them.
The magnitude of voltage so developed depends on the electrode
spacing and state of balance.
 Photoelectric Transducers (Light - Detecting Transducers) :

(a) Ionisation transducer:

When the displacement to be measured is applied to the tube and

internal electrode arrangement, spacing between the tube and fixed
external electrodes changes, resulting in a change of voltage.
The measurement of the voltage change directly indicates the
displacement if the transducer is calibrated prior to use.
 Photoelectric Transducers (Light - Detecting Transducers) :

(a) Ionisation transducer:

It consists of a glass tube containing gas under reduced pressure.

 When the tube is subjected to an electric field (due to external

electrodes, 'A' which are connected to a radio frequency (RF) voltage
source), ionisation of the gas in the tube occurs and the d.c voltage
produced which depends on the spacing between the electrodes.
 Photoelectric Transducers (Light - Detecting Transducers) :

(a) Ionisation transducer:

At null position, the generated voltage is zero.

As the position of the tube relative to the fixed external electrodes
varies, the output voltage changes which is the measure of displacement.