Unit Three

Wireless Network Principles

 Wireless Transmission

□ Wireless Communication systems consist of:

 Transmitters: a device w/c is expected to transmit data
to receivers.
 Antennas: radiate electromagnetic energy into air.

 Receivers: a device w/c is dedicated to receive data

from transmitter by the help of antenna.
 In some cases, transmitters and receivers are on same
device, called transceivers (example cellular phones).
 Signals

□ Signals: are the physical representation of data.

 Users of a communication system can only exchange data
through the transmission of signals. Example Light,
electromagnetic spectrum/radio.
 Layer 1 of the OSI basic reference model is responsible for
the conversion of data. i.e. bits, into signals and vice versa.
□ Signals, are represented as cyclic waves which may be discrete
(digital) or continuous (analog).
 Wireless Basics

□ Frequency : no of cycles per unit time of the wave.

□ Amplitude : the height of the wave.
□ Phase : shows how far, in degrees, the wave is from its
beginning (phase 0).
 Wireless Basics

□ Hertz (Hz): number of cycles per second. Frequency is

measured in Hertz.
□ Data rate : number of bits sent per second (bps).
□ Channel: a logical communication path.
□ Bandwidth: amount of data transferred each second.
□ Channel capacity: capability of channel to hold data when it
is transferring.
 Transmission Media

□ Transmission Media: is the physical path between the

transmitter and receiver. It can be:
1. Guided: along a solid medium. Example Cables &
2. Unguided: achieved by using antennas. Example
Wireless
 Type of wireless transmission

 Directional: point-to-point. E.g. microwave

 Omni-directional: waves are transmitted equally in
all directions.
 Wireless Frequency Allocation

□ Wireless communications use the “radio frequency (RF)”

spectrum for transmitting and receiving information.
□ Several factors are considered while allocating frequencies
1. Cost of components: increases as you go to
higher frequencies.
2. Signal losses: also increase as frequencies increase.
3. Noise disruption : lower frequencies are
disrupted regularly by man-made noise such as electrical
motors, car ignition, and domestic appliances.
Wireless Frequency Allocation
 Wireless Frequency Allocation

□ Major frequency bands

1. Microwave frequency range (1 GHz to 40 GHz)
 Suitable for point-to-point transmission
 Used for satellite & terrestrial communications

2. Broadcast Radio (30 MHz to 1GHz)

 Omnidirectional ( applicable for low frequency)
 Antennas not required to be dish-shaped
 Applications

 Broadcast radio & TV

 Covers FM radio and
 Television distribution
 Wireless Frequency Allocation

3. Terrestrial Microwave (1GHz to 40GHz)

 Most common: Parabolic "dish", 3m in
diameter
 Achieves line-of-sight transmission to
receiving antenna
 Applications
 Located at substantial heights above
 Long heave telecommunications service (instead of fiber, coax)
ground level
 Short point-to-point links between buildings.

4. Satellite Microwave (1GHz to 20 GHz)

 Used to link two or more ground-based transmitter/receivers
 Receives transmissions on one frequency band, amplifies or repeats the signal,
and transmits it on another frequency.
 Application
 Television distribution. Example Dstv uses satellites
 Long-distance telephone transmission between telephone
 Wireless Frequency Allocation

6. Infrared (300 GHz to 3000 GHz)

 operate in the terribly high frequency (THF)
 Useful in local point-to-point applications
within confined areas.
 does not penetrate walls
 Application

 used in remote control devices. i.e.

 TV remote controller and garage door openers
 Wireless Frequency Allocation

□ Commonly used frequencies in

Wireless Systems
1. Cellular Network
2. IEEE 802.11 LANs
3. Satellite System
4. Wireless local loops
5. Infrared Wireless LANs
TwoUnlicensed:
□ 1. approaches innousing
need wireless
of permission to use 100% not regulated by someone
frequencies:
else.
2. Licensed: regulated by somebody and need permission to use this
 frequency Some regulating agencies are:
a. ITU (International Telecom Union)
b. Local broadcasts
c. Telecommunication agencies
8/24/2019
 Relationship b/n Wireless Frequency and Distance
Covered

□ A very important relationship exists between frequency and

distance covered. The relationship is
• d = k/f
□ Where d = distance covered, f = frequency used, and k =
constant that depends on environmental factors.
□ Thus, the distance covered is inversely proportional to the
frequency being used.
□ This implies that the higher the frequency, the shorter is the
distance covered
 Relationship b/n Wireless Frequency and Distance
Covered

□ Why Lower Frequency???

 B/c Lower frequencies are:
 more congested and highly
competed,
 the distance can be longer,
and
 the power requirements
are lower.
 Transmitter

□ Transmitters: a device w/c is expected to transmit data

to receivers.
 Transmitter

□ Suppose you want to generate a signal that is sent at 900 MHz

and the original source generates a signal at 300 MHZ.
 Amplifier - strengthens the initial signal
 Oscillator - creates a carrier wave of 600 MHz
 Mixer - combines original signal with oscillator and
produces 900 MHz
 Filter - selects correct frequency (Checks the standards)
 Amplifier - Strengthens the signal before sending it

□ Remember that, Receivers perform similar operations but in

reverse direction.
 Antenna

□ Antenna : is an electrical conductor or system of

conductors to send/receive RF signals
 Transmission - radiates electromagnetic energy into
space
 Reception - collects electromagnetic energy from space

□ In two-way communication, the same antenna can be used

for transmission and reception. This type of antenna is
called transceiver.
 Propagation Mode

There are three types of Propagation Modes

propagation modes. These are: Signal

1. Ground wave propagation

Transmitting antenna Receiving antenna
(<2MHz)
Earth
Example submarine AM Radio Ionosphere

2. Sky wave propagation

Signal
(2MHz-30MHz)
Example International Radio Receiving antenna
Transmitting antenna Earth
Broadcasting like BBC, VOA

3. Line of site propagation Signal

(>30MHz)
Receiving antenna
Example Mobile, Satellite Transmitting antenna Earth
Summary of Wireless Frequency
Range, Application, and
Propagation
 Signal Propagation

□ Propagation is the movement of a wave through a medium. In this

case the medium is air/ RF/ EMS
□ Signal propagation is how the physical representation of data moves
through EMS/ RF.
□ signal propagation in free space almost follows a straight line, like
light. But in real life, we rarely have a line-of-sight between the
sender and receiver of radio signals, due to this signal propagation is
influenced by
 Shadowing
 Reflection
 Refraction
 Diffraction
 Scattering
 Signal Propagation

1. Shadowing: occurs when signal encounters large obstacles. Even small obstacles like a simple wall can

cause it.

2. Reflection: occurs when signal encounters large surfaces. The surface is large relative to the wavelength of

the signals.

3. Refraction: occurs because of the density of the medium through which EME travels. i.e. waves that travel

into a denser medium are bent towards the medium.

4. Scattering: occurs when the incoming signals hits an object whose size is in the order of the wavelength of

the signal or less.

5. Diffraction : occurs at the edge of impenetrable body that is large compared to the wavelength of the radio

wave.

shadow reflection refraction diffraction

scattering
ing
 Multipath Propagation

•Signal can take many different paths between sender

and receiver due to reflection, scattering, diffraction

signal at sender
signal at receiver
 Multiplexing

□ Multiplexing: is a technique which allow more than one message to be

transferred via the same communication channel.
□ It can be carried out in four dimensions: space, time, frequency, and code.
In this field, the task of multiplexing is to assign either space, time,
frequency, or code to each communication channel with a minimum of
interference and a maximum of medium utilization.
□ Takes place in the physical layer of OSI or TCP/IP.
□ Important: guard spaces needed!.
 Multiplexing

1. Space Division Multiplexing(SDM): the space is divided

into spatially separable sectors. i.e. divide the space into
sectors.
□ To reduce further, the risk of interference place guard
space
between the frequency spaces.
□ Example Satellite System.
 Multiplexing

2. Frequency Division Multiplexing(FDM): Separation of the whole

spectrum into smaller frequency bands. i.e. Divide the frequency band
into disjoint sub-bands. The sender uses the channel continuously.
 A channel gets a certain band of the spectrum for the whole time
 subdivide the frequency dimension into several non-overlapping
frequency bands.
 Again, guard spaces are needed to avoid frequency band overlapping.
 This scheme is used for radio stations within the same region, where
each radio station has its own frequency. This multiplexing scheme
does not need complex coordination between sender and receiver: the
receiver only has to tune in to the specific sender.
 Example Radio, and TV
 Multiplexing

□ In FDM, the frequency of one channel is divided among

n users.
□ Bandwidth will be wasted if any user does not have any
thing to send. Other users cannot take the advantage of
additional available bandwidth.
 Multiplexing
3. Time Division Multiplexing(TDM): A channel gets the whole
spectrum for a certain amount of time. i.e. divide the time into
non-overlapping time slots.
□ A certain time slot is always dedicated for a certain user even if the
user isn't using it.
 Here a channel is given the whole bandwidth for a certain
amount of time, i.e. all senders use the same frequency but at
different points in time.
 Again, guard spaces, which now represent time gaps, have to
separate the different periods when the senders use the
medium/channel.
 Example GSM systems
 Multiplexing

□ In TDM system, the time of one channel is divided

among n users. Each user appears to have full channel
for total time divided by n (time/n).
 Multiplexing

4. Code Division Multiplexing(CDM): each channel has a unique

code. i.e. each user assigned a unique code to utilize the
channel/medium.
 different spread-spectrum codes are selected and assigned
to each user, and multiple users share the same frequency.
 good protection against interference.
 Highly complex scheme but high performance in security.
 Receiver has to know the code & be able to separate out
other traffic on different codes which appear as background
noise.
 Example 2.5G and 3G
 Multiplexing

 Receiver & transmitter must be synchronized to

provide correct decoding.

□ All signals must reach the receiver with relatively

equal strength or the receiver will not be able to distinguish
between them.
 Modulation
□ Modulation: is the process of encoding information from a message source in a
manner suitable for transmission.
□ It involves translating a baseband message signal to a bandpass signal at
frequencies that are very high compared to the baseband frequency.
□ Demodulation: is the process of extracting the digital information from the
carrier.
□ Demodulation: is the inverse operation of modulator: i.e. extracting the
baseband
message from the carrier so that it may be processed at the receiver.
 Modulation

□ Baseband signal is called modulating signal

□ Bandpass signal is called modulated signal
□ Modulation can be done by varying the Amplitude, Phase, or
Frequency.
□ The goals of Modulation scheme is
 Transport the message signal through the radio channel with
best possible quality
 Occupy least amount of radio (RF) spectrum.

□ There are two types of Modulation.

1. Analog Modulation and
2. Digital Modulation
 Analog Modulation

1. Analog Modulation
□ The input is continues signal
□ Used in first generation mobile radio systems such as AMPS in
USA.
□ This Analog Modulation can be:
1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

2. Frequency Modulation (FM) and

3. Phase Modulation (PM)

 To transmit analog data as analog signal, we use either of
the three analog modulation techniques listed above.
 Analog Modulation

1. Amplitude Modulation (AM)

 Encoding of information in a carrier

waveby varying the instantaneous
amplitude of the wave.
  i.e. changing the amplitude of the carrier signal.
 The frequency of the carrier signal is kept
 constant. One of the oldest technique found
 around 1901.

• First method used to transfer voice information.


• All information is carried in the amplitude of
the carrier.
 Analog Modulation
38

2. Frequency Modulation (FM)

• Encoding of information in a carrier wave
by varying the instantaneous frequency of
the wave. i.e. changing the frequency of
the carrier signal.
• Most popular analog modulation
technique. Amplitude of the carrier
signal is kept constant.
• Operates under low frequency, & has
better noise immunity.
3. Phase Modulation (PM)
 Encodes information as variations in the instantaneous phase
of a carrier wave. i.e. changing the phase of the carrier signal.
 Digital Modulation

2. Digital Modulation
 The input is discrete signals.

 Are used in current and future mobile radio systems.

□ This Digital Modulation can be:

1. Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK)

2. Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK)

3. Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)

 To transmit digital data as analog signal, we use either of
the three digital modulation techniques listed above.
 Digital Modulation

1. Amplitude-Shift Keying (ASK)

□ encodes digital data by modulating the carrier's amplitude between
two or more levels.
□ suppose consider the following figure, in this, a signal amplitude 1
represents a binary 0 and a signal with amplitude 2 represents a
binary 1, and so on…
 Digital Modulation

2. Frequency-Shift Keying (FSK)

□ Encodes digital data by modulating the carrier's frequency between
two or more values.
□ For example, a binary 0 would be one frequency (or group of
frequencies) and a binary 1 would be some other frequency (or
group of frequencies).
□ FSK is less susceptible to corruption than ASK. Many modems use
FSK to convert digital data to analogue signals.
 Digital Modulation

3. Phase-Shift Keying (PSK)

□ Phase-shift keying encodes digital data by shifting the
phase of the carrier.
□ PSK uses bandwidth more efficiently.
Thus many wireless systems use PSK
□ PSK-encoded data is highly resistant to corruption.
 Analog vs. Digital Communications

□ Communication in wireless system can be analog or Digital.

1. Analog communication
 receives/generates analog signal and use amplifiers to
handle attenuation.
 amplifier do not know the content ,they amplify whatever is
received, including the noise.
 Continuous

2. Digital communication
 Receive/generate digital signal and uses repeaters ,over long
distances to recover the patterns of 1’s and 0’s
 repeaters are used to filter the noise.
 Discrete
 Discontinuous.
 Analog vs. Digital Communications

□ Analog vs. Digital Communication

 Analog vs. Digital Communications

□ Why Digital is Better?

 more strong and free of noise because it is easier to detect 1’s
and 0’s even in distorted messages.
 Repeaters reduce additive noise
 Discrete information transmission.
 especially suitable for computer networks because data bits can
be directly fed into a communication medium without any
modulation/demodulation.
 Digital communications are more secure because digital data
streams can be scrambled (encrypted) by using sophisticated
computer techniques.
 The encryption/decryption on analog data is not sophisticated.
 Multiple Access Techniques

□ Multiple Access Techniques

□ Are used to allow many users to share simultaneously a finite
amount of radio spectrum.
□ Takes place in data link layer of OSI or TCP/IP.
□ Are used to allow a large number of mobile users to share the
allocated spectrum in the most efficient manner.
□ As the spectrum is limited, so the sharing is required to
increase the capacity of cell or over a geographical area by
allowing the available bandwidth to be used at the same time
by different users. And this must be done in a way such that
the quality of service doesn’t degrade within the existing
users.
 Multiple Access Techniques

□ The main aim in the cellular system design is to be able to

increase the capacity of the channel i.e. to handle as many calls
as possible in a given bandwidth with a sufficient level of
quality of service.
□ In wireless communication there are several different ways to
allow access to the channel. These includes mainly the
following:
1. Space division multiple access (SDMA)
2. Frequency division multiple access (FDMA)
3. Time division multiple access (TDMA)
4. Code division multiple access (CDMA)
 Multiple Access Techniques

1. Space division multiple access (SDMA)

□ The space is divided into spatially separable sectors.
□ Used for allocating a separated space to users in
wireless networks.
□ Example. a typical application involves assigning an
optimal base station to a mobile phone user. The mobile
phone may receive several base stations with different
quality. A MAC algorithm could now decide the best
base station and assign to the mobile users.
 Multiple Access Techniques

2. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

□Itisacommunicationstechniquethatdivi
d e s communications into a number of equally spaced
frequency bands.
□ Technique or a protocol defined to access a channel based
on FDM method.
□ It is a multiple-access technique for cellular systems in
which each individual user is assigned a pair of frequencies
while making or receiving a call.
□ One frequency is used for downlink and the other for uplink.
 Multiple Access Techniques

3. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

□ It is a digital technology that allows a number of users
to access a single RF channel without interference by
allocating a unique time slots to each users within each
channel.
□ after the user finishes using the time slot, the time slot is
freed and can be used by another user .
□ Usually time slots are dynamically assigned and the
user may get a different time slot each time he accesses
the network
 Multiple Access Techniques

4. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

□ Each channel has a unique code. i.e. each user assigned a unique code to
utilize the channel/medium in data link layer.
□ Codes with certain characteristics can be applied to the transmission to
enable the use of code division multiplexing (CDM).
□ Virtually allows numerous users to use the channel at the same time.
□ Different spread-spectrum codes are selected and assigned to each user,
and multiple users share the same frequency.
□ Receiver has to know the code & be able to separate out other traffic on
different codes which appear as background noise.
□ It is a wireless technology that uses the principles of spread spectrum
communication.
□ Transmitting and receiving are all done by various users simultaneously.
□ The most recent technology gradually replacing TDMA & FDMA.
 Multiple Access Techniques

Cellular System Multiple Access Techniques

Advanced Mobile Phone System FDMA

(AMPS)

Global System for Mobile TDMA

(GSM)

US Digital Cellular (USDC) TDMA

Digital European Cordless FDMA

Telephone (DECT)

US Narrowband Spread Spectrum CDMA

 Classification of Wireless Network
53

Wireless
N etwork
Wir Wireless Wireless WANs
seles MAN
LAsN
Wiresless Local Sat
Loops Cellular Paging
Busines ellite
PAN (Fixed Net w or ser vic
s LA N Syst
w ir k e
s em
) eles Exam
Exam Example1: Exam Exam
ple1
GSM,: 9.
ple1 :
Bluetooth ple1 :
LMDS ple1 : 9 .
GSM, Exam
802.11b 6
1 Mbps, 11 Mbps, 37 6 ple1 :
Kbps,
10 100 Mbps, Kbps, FLEX,
wide
Meters Meters 2-4 Km wide
cover 1 . 2 Kbps
Ot her 2 Example cover
Other ag e
exam : FSO ag e
examples: Exam Exam
ples 1 .2 Example2:
802.11g, ple2 : 3G,
: wireless 5 3G, 2 Mbps, ple2 :
HiperLA 2
sensor s 1-2
Gbp wide ReFLEX,
N2 Mbps 8/24/2019
networks KM coverage ,cover 6.4Kbps