Because learning changes everything.

Chapter 3
Cell Structures and Their
Functions
Lecture Outline

Seeley’s ESSENTIALS OF
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY
Eleventh Edition
Cinnamon VanPutte
Jennifer Regan
Andrew Russo

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Cell Structure

Organelles:
• specialized structures in cells that perform
• specific functions
• Example: nucleus, mitochondria, ribosomes
Cytoplasm:
• jelly-like substance that holds organelles
Cell membrane:
• also termed the plasma membrane
• a structure that encloses the cytoplasm

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Generalized Cell

Figure 3.1
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Functions of the Cell

• Smallest units of life

• Cell metabolism and energy use
• Synthesis of molecules
• Communication
• Reproduction and inheritance

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Cell Membrane

• The cell membrane, or plasma membrane, is the

outermost component of a cell.
• It forms a boundary between material in inside the cell and
the outside.
• Materials inside the cell are intracellular and those
outside are extracellular.
• It acts as a selective barrier.

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Phospholipid Structure

• A phospholipid molecule has a polar head region that is

hydrophilic and a nonpolar tail region that is hydrophobic.
• The polar region is exposed to water around the
membrane.
• The nonpolar region is facing the interior of the membrane.

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The Cell Membrane

Figure 3.2a
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Movement through the Cell Membrane

• The cell membrane has selective permeability, which

allows only certain substances to pass in and out of the
cell.
• Substances such as enzymes, glycogen, and potassium
are found in higher concentrations inside the cell.
• Substances such as sodium, calcium, and chloride are
found in higher concentrations outside the cell.

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Cell Membrane Passage 1

• Some substances, like O2 and CO2, can pass directly

through the cell membrane’s phospholipid bilayer.
• Some substances must pass through transmembrane
protein channels, such as Na+ through its channels.
• The route of transport through the membrane depends on
the size, shape, and charge of the substance.

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Cell Membrane Passage 2

• Some substances require carrier molecules to transport

them across the cell membrane, such as glucose.
• Some substances require a vesicular transport across the
membrane.
• The vesicle must fuse with the cell membrane for
transport.

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Active Transport and Passive Transport 1

• Passive membrane transport does not require the cell to

expend energy.
• Active membrane transport does require the cell to
expend energy, usually in the form of ATP.

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Active Transport and Passive Transport 2

• Passive membrane transport mechanisms include

diffusion, osmosis, and facilitated diffusion.
• Active membrane transport mechanisms include active
transport, secondary active transport, endocytosis,
and exocytosis.

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Diffusion 1

• Diffusion generally involves movement of substances in a

solution down a concentration gradient.
• A solution is generally composed of two major parts,
solutes and the solvent.
• Solutes are substances dissolved in a predominant liquid
or gas, which is called the solvent.
• Solutes, such as ions or molecules, tend to move from an
area of higher concentration of a solute to an area of lower
concentration of that same solute in solution.
• This movement from high concentration to a low
concentration is diffusion.

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Concentration Gradient

• A concentration gradient is the difference in the

concentration of a solute in a solvent between two points
divided by the distance between the two points.
• The concentration gradient is said to be steeper when the
concentration difference is large and/or the distance is
small.

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Diffusion 2

Figure 3.3
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Osmosis 1

• Osmosis is the diffusion of water (a solvent) across a

selectively permeable membrane from a region of higher
water concentration to one of lower water concentration.
• Osmosis exerts a pressure, termed osmotic pressure,
which is the force required to prevent movement of water
across cell membrane

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Osmosis 2

Figure 3.4
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Osmotic Pressure and the Cell

• Osmotic pressure depends on the difference of solution

concentrations inside a cell relative to outside the cell.
• A cell may be placed in solutions that are either
hypotonic, isotonic, or hypertonic compared to the cell
cytoplasm.

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Hypotonic

• A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solutes

and a higher concentration of water relative to the
cytoplasm of the cell.
• The solution has less tone, or osmotic pressure, than the
cell.
• Water moves by osmosis into the cell, causing it to swell.
• If the cell swells enough, it can rupture, a process called
lysis.

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Isotonic

• A cell immersed in an isotonic solution has the same

solute concentrations inside and outside the cell.
• The cell will neither shrink nor swell.

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Hypertonic

• The cytoplasm of a cell in a hypertonic solution has a

lower solute concentration and higher water concentration
than the surrounding solution.
• Water moves by osmosis from the cell into the hypertonic
solution, resulting in cell shrinkage, or crenation.

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Red Blood Cell Changes in Differing Solutions

David M. Phillips/Science Source

Figure 3.5
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Facilitated Diffusion 1

• Lipid soluble substances such as oxygen, carbon dioxide,

and steroids can diffuse directly through the phospholipid
bilayer.
• Water-soluble substances, such as ions, can diffuse
across the cell membrane only by passing through cell
membrane channels or through carrier molecules.

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Diffusion through the Cell Membrane

Figure 3.6
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Leak and Gated Channels 1

• Two classes of cell membrane channels include leak

channels and gated channels.
• Leak channels constantly allow ions to pass through.
• Gated channels limit the movement of ions across the
membrane by opening and closing.

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Leak and Gated Channels 2

Figure 3.7
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Carrier Molecules 1

• Carrier molecules are proteins within the cell membrane

involved in facilitated diffusion.
• Move water soluble molecules or ions across the
membrane.
• They exhibit specificity; only specific molecules are
transported by the carriers.

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Carrier Molecules 2

Figure 3.8
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Active Transport

• Active transport is a carrier-mediated process, requiring

ATP, that moves substances across the cell membrane
from regions of lower concentration to those of higher
concentration against a concentration gradient.
• Active transport processes accumulate necessary
substances on one side of the cell membrane at
concentrations many times greater than those on the other
side.

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Sodium-Potassium Pump 1

• A major example of active transport is the action of the

sodium-potassium pump present in cell membranes.
• The sodium-potassium pump moves Na+ out of cells and
K+ into cells.
• The result is a higher concentration of Na+ outside cells
and a higher concentration of K+ inside cells.

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Sodium-Potassium Pump 2

Figure 3.9
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Endocytosis

• Endocytosis is a process that that brings materials into cell

using vesicles.
• Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when a specific
substance binds to the receptor molecule and is
transported into the cell.
• Phagocytosis is often used for endocytosis when solid
particles are ingested.
• Pinocytosis has much smaller vesicles formed, and they
contain liquid rather than solid particles.

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Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis

Figure 3.11
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Exocytosis 1

• Exocytosis involves the use of membrane-bound sacs

called secretory vesicles that accumulate materials for
release from the cell.
• The vesicles move to the cell membrane and fuse,
ultimately releasing the material by exocytosis.
• Examples of exocytosis are the secretion of digestive
enzymes.

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Exocytosis 2

(b) ©Dr. Birgit H. Satir

Figure 3.12
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General Cell Structure

• The interior of a cell is composed of the cytoplasm, which

a jelly-like fluid that surrounds the organelles.
• Organelles are specialized structures that perform certain
functions.
• Organelles include the nucleus, ribosomes, endoplasmic
reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes,
mitochondria, cytoskeleton, centrioles, cilia, flagella, and
microvilli.

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Generalized Cell 2

Figure 3.1
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Cell Nucleus 1

• The nucleus is a large organelle usually located near the

center of the cell.
• The nucleus is bounded by a nuclear envelope, which
consists of outer and inner membranes with a narrow
space between them.
• The nuclear membrane contains nuclear pores, through
which materials can pass into or out of the nucleus.

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Cell Nucleus 3

• Within the nucleus are Nucleoli, which are diffuse bodies

with no surrounding membrane. that are found within the
nucleus
• There are usually one to several nucleoli within the
nucleus.
• The subunits of ribosomes, a type of cytoplasmic
organelle, are formed within a nucleolus.
• These ribosomal components exit the nucleus through
nuclear pores.

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Cell Nucleus 4

(b,c) Don W. Fawcett/Science Source

Figure 3.13
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Ribosomes

• Ribosome components are produced in the nucleolus.

• Ribosomes are the organelles where proteins are
produced.
• Ribosomes may be attached to other organelles, such as
the endoplasmic reticulum.
• Ribosomes that are not attached to any other organelle
are called free ribosomes.

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Endoplasmic Reticulum 1

• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a series of membranes

forming sacs and tubules that extends from the outer
nuclear membrane into the cytoplasm.
• The rough ER is involved in protein synthesis and is
rough due to attached ribosomes.
• The smooth ER has no attached ribosomes and is a site
for lipid synthesis, cellular detoxification, and it stores
calcium ions in skeletal muscle cells.

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Endoplasmic Reticulum 2

Figure 3.16a
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Golgi Apparatus 1

• The Golgi apparatus, also called the Golgi complex,

consists of closely packed stacks of curved, membrane-
bound sacs.
• It collects, modifies, packages, and distributes proteins
and lipids manufactured by the ER.
• The Golgi apparatus forms vesicles, some of which are
secretory vesicles, lysosomes, and other vesicles.

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Golgi Apparatus 2

(b) Biophoto Associates/Science Source

Figure 3.17
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Lysosomes

• Lysosomes are membrane-bound vesicles formed from the

Golgi apparatus.
• They contain a variety of enzymes that function as
intracellular digestive systems.
• Vesicles formed by endocytosis may fuse with lysosomes in
order to breakdown materials in the endocytotic vesicles.
• One example is white blood cells phagocytizing bacteria.

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Lysosome Action

Figure 3.18
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Peroxisomes

• Peroxisomes are small, membrane-bound vesicles

containing enzymes that break down fatty acids, amino
acids, and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
• Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and amino
acid breakdown and can be toxic to a cell.
• The enzymes in peroxisomes break down hydrogen.

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Mitochondria 1

• Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are small organelles

responsible for producing considerable amounts of ATP by
aerobic (with O2) metabolism.
• They have inner and outer membranes separated by a
space.
• The outer membranes have a smooth contour, but the
inner membranes have numerous folds, called cristae,
which project into the interior of the mitochondria.

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Mitochondria 2

• The material within the inner membrane is the

mitochondrial matrix and contains enzymes and
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA).
• Cells with a large energy requirement have more
mitochondria than cells that require less energy.

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A Mitochondrion

(b) EM Research Services, Newcastle University

Figure 3.19
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The Cytoskeleton 2

• The cytoskeleton gives internal framework to the cell.

• It consists of protein structures that support the cell, hold
organelles in place, and enable the cell to change shape.
• These protein structures are microtubules,
microfilaments, and intermediate filaments.

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Microtubules

• Microtubules are hollow structures formed from protein

subunits.
• The microtubules perform a variety of roles, including
helping to support the cytoplasm of cells, assisting in cell
division, and forming essential components of certain
organelles, such as cilia and flagella.

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Microfilaments

• Microfilaments are small fibrils formed from protein

subunits that structurally support the cytoplasm,
determining cell shape.
• Some microfilaments are involved with cell movement.
• Microfilaments in muscle cells enable the cells to shorten,
or contract.

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Intermediate Filaments

• Intermediate filaments are fibrils formed from protein

subunits that are smaller in diameter than microtubules but
larger in diameter than microfilaments.
• They provide mechanical support to the cell.
• A specific type of intermediate filament is keratin, a protein
associated with skin cells.

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The Cytoskeleton 1

(b) ©Don W. Fawcett/Science Source

Figure 3.20
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Centrioles

• The centrosome is a specialized area of cytoplasm close

to the nucleus where microtubule formation occurs.
• It contains two centrioles, which are normally oriented
perpendicular to each other.
• Each centriole is a small, cylindrical organelle composed
of microtubules.
• The centriole is involved in the process of mitosis.

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Centriole

(b) Biology Media/Science Source

Figure 3.21
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Cilia

• Cilia project from the surface of certain cells.

• They are responsible for the movement of materials over
the top of cells, such as mucus.
• Cilia are cylindrical structures that extend from the cell and
are composed of microtubules.

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Flagella

• Flagella have a structure similar to that of cilia but are

much longer, and they usually occur only one per cell.
• Sperm cells each have one flagellum, which propels the
sperm cell.

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Microvilli

• Microvilli are specialized extensions of the cell membrane

that are supported by microfilaments.
• They do not actively move as cilia and flagella do.
• Microvilli are numerous on cells that have them and they
increase the surface area of those cells.
• They are abundant on the surface of cells that line the
intestine, kidney, and other areas in which absorption is an
important function.

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Whole Cell Activity

• A cell’s characteristics are determined by the type of

proteins produced.
• The proteins produced are in turn determined by the
genetic information in the nucleus.
• Information in DNA provides the cell with a code for its
cellular processes.

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DNA 1

• DNA contains the information that directs protein

synthesis; a process called gene expression.
• A DNA molecule consists of nucleotides joined together
to form two nucleotide strands.
• The two strands are connected and resemble a ladder that
is twisted around its long axis.
• Each nucleotide consists of a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate
group, and a nitrogenous base.

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Gene Expression

• Gene expression, which is protein synthesis, involves

transcription and translation.
• Transcription involves copying DNA into messenger
RNA.
• Translation involves messenger RNA being used to
produce a protein.

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Transcription 1

• Transcription takes place in the nucleus of the cell.

• DNA determines the structure of mRNA through
transcription.
• During transcription, the double strands of a DNA segment
separate, and DNA nucleotides of the gene pair with RNA
nucleotides that form the mRNA.

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Transcription 2

• DNA contains one of the following organic bases: thymine,

adenine, cytosine, or guanine.
• Messenger RNA (mRNA) contains uracil, adenine,
cytosine, or guanine.

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Transcription 3

• DNA nucleotides pair only with specific RNA nucleotides.

• DNA’s thymine pairs with RNA’s adenine.
• DNA’s adenine pairs with RNA’s uracil.
• DNA’s cytosine pairs with RNA’s guanine
• DNA’s guanine pairs with RNA’s cytosine.

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Transcription 4

Figure 3.23
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Translation 1

• Translation occurs in the cell cytoplasm after mRNA has

exited the nucleus through the nuclear pores.
• The mRNA attaches to a ribosome.
• Codons (3 nucleotide bases) on the mRNA are read by
anticodons (3 nucleotide bases) on transfer RNA
(tRNA).

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Translation 2

• Transfer RNA transports specific amino acids from the

cytoplasm to the ribosome-mRNA complex and initiates
formation of the polypeptide chain.
• The process continues until the entire polypeptide is
completely formed.

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The Cell Cycle 1

• During growth and development, cell division occurs to

increase the number of cells or replace damaged or dying
ones.
• This cell division involves a cell cycle.
• The cell cycle includes two major phases: a nondividing
phase, called interphase, and a cell dividing phase,
termed mitosis.

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The Cell Cycle 2

A cell spends most of its life cycle in interphase which is

divided into three phases:
• G1 phase, during which the cell carries out normal
metabolic activity
• S phase, during which the DNA is replicated; and
• G2 phase, during which the cell prepares to divide.

At the end of interphase, a cell has two complete sets of

genetic material

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The Cell Cycle 3

Figure 3.24
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Cell Genetic Content

• Each human cell (except sperm and egg) contains 23

pairs of chromosomes, a total of 46.
• One pair of chromosomes are the sex chromosomes,
which consist of two X chromosomes if the person is a
female or an X and Y chromosome if the person is a male.

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Mitosis

• Mitosis involves formation of 2 daughter cells from a single

parent cell.
• Mitosis is divided into four phases: prophase, metaphase,
anaphase, and telophase.

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Prophase

• During prophase the chromatin condenses to form visible

chromosomes.
• Microtubules, termed spindle fibers, form to assist in
breaking the centromere between the chromatids and
move the chromosomes to opposite sides of the cell.
• The nuclear membrane dissolves.

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Metaphase

• During metaphase, the chromosomes align near the

center of the cell.
• The movement of the chromosomes is regulated by the
attached spindle fibers.

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Anaphase

• At the beginning of anaphase, the chromatids separate

and each chromatid is called a chromosome.
• Each of the two sets of 46 chromosomes is moved by the
spindle fibers toward the centriole at one of the poles of
the cell.
• At the end of anaphase, each set of chromosomes has
reached an opposite pole of the cell, and the cytoplasm
begins to divide.

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Telophase

• During telophase, the chromosomes in each of the

daughter cells become organized to form two separate
nuclei, one in each newly formed daughter cell.
• The chromosomes begin to unravel and resemble the
genetic material during interphase.
• Following telophase, cytoplasm division is completed, and
two separate daughter cells are produced.

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The Cell Cycle

Ed Reschke/Photolibrary/Getty Images
Figure 3.25
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Tumors

• Tumors are abnormal proliferations of cells.

• They are due to problems occurring in the cell cycle.
• Some tumors are benign and some are malignant
(cancer).
• Malignant tumors can spread by a process, termed
metastasis.

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Differentiation

• A sperm cell and an oocyte unite to form a single cell, then

a great number of mitotic divisions occur to give the
trillions of cells of the body.
• The process by which cells develop with specialized
structures and functions is called differentiation.
• During differentiation of a cell, some portions of DNA are
active, but others are inactive.

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Diversity of Cell Types

Figure 3.26
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Apoptosis

• Apoptosis, termed programmed cell death, is a normal

process by which cell numbers within various tissues are
adjusted and controlled.
• In the developing fetus, apoptosis removes extra tissue,
such as cells between the developing fingers and toes.
• In some adult tissues, apoptosis eliminates excess cells to
maintain a constant number of cells within the tissue.

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Cellular Aspects of Aging

There are various causes for cellular aging.

• Existence of a cellular clock
• Presence of death genes
• DNA damage

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