RESEARCH

OBJECTIVES & COURSE OUTLINE

BROAD OBJECTIVE
• By the end of these sessions, the students will be able to
acquire knowledge and skills in developing a research
proposal as well as conducting a research project
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
By the end of the sessions, the students will be able to:
• Explore the basic concepts of research
• Explain the role of research to nursing practice
• Describe the major research types
• Describe the research process
• Develop & implement a research proposal
 SCIENTIFIC DEFINITION OF RESEARCH
• Research is a scientific process. This is because the
results are verifiable.
• i. It is the process of arriving at dependable
solutions to problems through the planned
systematic collection, analysis & interpretation of
data.
• Ii.Its also defined as : a systematic attempt to
provide answers to questions.
• Iii. A systematic process of collecting, examining and
interpreting data.
• KEY WORDS IN RESEARCH DEFINITION.
• Process.
• Systematic.
• Collection.
• Analysis.
• Interpretation.
• COMPONENTS OF RESEARCH.
• It is systematic: attempts to solve problems
whether social, economic, political, cultural /
health related in a systematic way. Why
systematic?
• Involves identification of the problem.
• Review of related literature & data collection.
• Data collection is done in a proper
• Organization & control so that the data will
enable valid decisions to be made about the
research problem at hand. Then followed by
data analysis, conclusions &
recommendations.
• B) It is objective: attempts to find an objective.
• Unbiased solution to the problem. Involves
gathering data & trying to find solution.
• C) It’s based on an observable experience.
Demands accurate observation & description.
• D) employs carefully designed procedures &
rigorous analysis.
• Nursing research is a process in which the
researcher scientifically collects data to be
used in the clinical, administrative /
instructional area in order to be used in
clinical, administrative, / instructional area in
order to find solutions to nursing problems,
evaluate nursing procedures, policies or
curriculum, assess the needs of patients,
staff / students & / make decisions to change /
• Continue various nursing process which in
turn advances knowledge in nursing field.
• NEED FOR RESEARCH IN NURSING
• It builds a body of nursing knowledge.
• Validates improvement in nursing.
• Makes health care efficient & cost effective.
 Nursing research cont’
• Research can be nursing research only when it
addresses issues that are relevant to the nursing
profession.
• Nursing research; your study must be geared
towards improving certain aspects of the nursing
practice, education and administration.
• The purposes of nursing research include:
– Developing scientific, evidence based reasons for nursing
activities.
– Finding ways of increasing the cost-effectiveness of
nursing activities.
– Providing a basis for standards setting and quality
assurance.
– Providing evidence in support of demands for resources
in nursing.
– Barring and defending a professional status for nursing.
– Focusing on priority problems that affect the nursing
profession.
• CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH.
• ON THE BASIS OF PURPOSE.
• BASIC RESEARCH.
• Is pure, theoretical research.
• Data collected advances scientific knowledge.
• Leads to development of theories which
describe, explain, or predict a phenomenon of
interest to the discipline without regard to its
later use.
• APPLIED RESEARCH
• Researcher scientifically collects data to be
used in clinical, administrative/ instructional
area to find solution to the problem.
• Evaluates practices & identifies the needs for
clients.
• Tries to say how things can be changed.
• ACTION RESEARCH.
• Is another form of applied research.
• Tries to solve an ongoing problem.
• Is focused on immediate application, not on
the development of theory.
• BASED ON APPROACHES.
• Experimental
• E.g laboratory experiments, field experiments,
field studies.
• The researcher makes changes in independent
variables & studies their effects on dependent
variables under controlled conditions.
• Scope of research is narrow.
• Data generated by the research is used to
establish cause & effect relationship between
two variables.
• NON EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
• The researcher simply measures the present
level of the independent variable.
• Data generated is not helpful in establishing
the cause& effect relationship.
• The scope of research is very wide.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD
RESEARCH
• Should have a comprehensive statement and
justification of the research problem
• Has clearly stated objectives and research questions
• Measures what it sought to from the onset.
• Has a clearly stated and relevant purpose.
• Utilizes an intensive and extensive review of relevant
literature to broaden the perspective of the research
project
• Clearly and systematically explains the methodology
utilized
• Offers plausible interpretations and explanations of the
results
• Draws valid evidence-based conclusions deduced from the
research results
• Generates plausible evidence based on the scientific
methods applied
• Examines the implications of the evidence adduced with
other relevant important areas of the target community,
such as social, economic, health, policy and other aspects
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
• Has 5 phases;
– The conceptual phase, also called the thinking or
planning phase.
– Design and planning phase
– The empirical phase, also called the doing phase.
– The interpretive phase (analytic), or the phase where
the researcher looks at the meaning of it all.
– The communication phase or the phase of writing and
disseminating the research report
The 5 phases have been expanded to 10 steps
 THE RESEARCH PROCESS
1. Identify the research topic
2. Problem statement
3. Rationale/ justification/purpose of the study
4. Formulate research questions, objectives & hypothesis 1
5. Literature review>>>> CHAPTER 2
6. Research methodology
7. Describe the methods of measurement
>>>CHAPTER 3
8. Data collection and presentation>>> CHAPTER 4
9. Data analysis & interpretation
10. Communicating research findings, conclusion,
recommendations, limitations & appendices
 1. IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH TOPIC
• This is the first step in developing community health
research,
• It provides the focus of the study
• It becomes the title of your Report
The characteristics of a good research topic are:
It should be clear and concise.
Should be appealing i.e. attracting
It should not contain more than 20 words (including full
stops and comas)
You can have a title that contains two parts. However, in
this case the two parts have to be separated by a colon (:)
 Example of a title consisting of two
parts
Research methods in health: investigating health and
health services.
Doing Educational Research: A guide to first time
researchers.
 CRITERIA FOR TITLE SELECTION
• Should be of your own choice
• One that provides focus for a study you want to
undertake
• A researcher may draw research topics from:
– Existing professional knowledge and experience.

– Socially significant issues i.e., the research topic

has practical relevance and significance to the
society. For instance, the study could be in a
position to solve an existing and pressing social
problem.
 2. PROBLEM STATEMENT
INTRODUCTION
• The next step after topic selection is the statement
of the problem.
• This provides the context for your research
• It defines clearly the problem you propose to
examine
• It explains why it is important to carry out the
research.
DEFINITION OF PROBLEM STATEMENT
• The problem statement is a specific statement that
clearly conveys the scope, magnitude and purpose
of the research study.
Reasons why it is Important to State and Define the
Problem Well
• Is the foundation for further development of the
research proposal (research objectives,
methodology, work plan, budget)
• Makes it easier to find information and reports of
similar studies from which your own study design
can benefit
Enables you to systematically point out:
• why the proposed research on the problem should
be undertaken and
• what you hope to achieve with the study result. This
is especially important when you have to present
your project to community members, health staff,
relevant ministries and donor agencies that need to
support your study or give their consent
• It important when you have to present your project
to community members, health staff, relevant
ministries and donor agencies that need to support
your study or give their consent
 Chronological order of problem
statement
i) Identify the problem situation
ii) This will be followed by the process of problem
definition.
iii) The identified problem must now be defined in
terms of its:
– occurrence,
– intensity,
– distribution, and other measures for which data are
already available
• The aim is to determine all that is currently known
about the problem and the reason it exists
iv) Concerted efforts must be made to establish
– How wide spread is the problem?
– Who is affected by the problem?
– What is its distribution?
– How often does the problem occur?
– What social or cultural practices are associated with the
problem?
– What costs are associated with the problem?
v) A thorough literature review would assist in
determining the following:
• Incidence and prevalence of the problem;
• Geographic areas affected by the problem;
• Population affected by the problem;
• Probable reasons for the problem;
• Possible solutions;
• Unanswered questions that need to be
researched.
 SUMMARY OF A WELL STATED
PROBLEM
A well-defined research problem statement leads
naturally to the statement of:
• research objectives,
• hypotheses;
• definition of key variables, and
• selection of a methodology for measuring the
variables
NOTE: A poorly defined research problem leads to
confusion
Procedure for Identifying and Defining
a Research Problem:

• A) REFLECTION.
• Starts with an idea that the researcher might have
as to what kind of a problem he/ she wants to solve.
• Every day experiences & practices usually bring up
questions the researcher wants to answer.
• Hence, the researcher writes down some research
ideas he/she has been debating based on the
• Selected topic.
• Identify independent & dependent variables
of the study.
• B) Identification
• After identifying key variables, the researcher
identifies the key uncertainties. Attempt to
answer the following.
• Is there something wrong/ disturbing the
• Society, theoretically unclear or in dispute
with related to the topic selected?
• Why is this a problem?
• C) FORMULATION
• The researcher formulates the identified
problem by clearly explaining why this is a
problem & how it affects people/ institutions.
• Indicate what you as a researcher know about
• The problem, through personal observation &
research.
• D) JUSTIFICATION.
• After stating what the researcher thinks is the
problem, he/she should explain briefly the
repercussions likely to follow in the long run if
not addressed. So researcher uses the
statement of the problem to show that the
research is definitely needed.
STEP 3: RATIONALE/JUSTIFICATION OF
THE RESEARCH PROBLEM
• After stating the research problem,justify why
you chose to study this problem.
• The words ‘rationale’ and ‘justification’ are
commonly used interchangeably.
• This is the section of the study that outlines
reasons for carrying out the study.
• Justifications of the study should address some of
the following questions( QUESTIONS THAT YOU
MUST ADDRESS):
Is the problem you wish to study a current and
timely one? Does it exist now?
How widespread is the problem? Are many areas
and many people affected?
Does the problem affect key populations such as
the adolescents, youth, expectant mothers or
children?
Does the problem relate to ongoing
intervention activities?
Does the problem relate to broad social,
economic and health issues such as poverty,
status of women, or education?
Who else is concerned about the problem? Are
top government officials concerned? Are health
and other professionals concerned?
What gaps in knowledge do you want to fill in
and why is it important to generate information
to fill those gaps?
• It is important to state the justification
convincingly so as to rationalize the utilization of
resources such as time, money materials and
manpower.
• The rationale of the study should describe the
utility and importance of the problem in health
care services in general and the nursing profession
in particular.
 AREAS YOU NEED TO JUSTIFY
• You will also need to justify the location or
site(s) in which to conduct your research.
• The location or site must be described in some
detail, paying attention to its appropriateness
to the research proposed.
 STEP 4: Formulation of Research questions,
Objectives and Hypothesis
What are RESEARCH QUESTIONS?
• These are questions whose answers should help us come
up with a solution to the problem stated.
• Answers to these questions will be obtained through the
research you will conduct
HOW TO FORMULATE RESEARCH QUESTIONS
• The research question (s) should develop logically from the
problem and context you have defined under the
introduction and problem statement section and
• should describe the core objective of your research.
• These are the most important questions whose answers
you are seeking to find through your research
Research question assists the researcher to:
a) Focus on the study by narrowing it down to
the essentials
b) Avoid collection of data that are not
necessary
c) Organize the study in clearly defined parts or
phases
Good research questions should be “FINER”
F - Feasible, allowing one to appreciate the practical
limitations.
I - Interesting, sustaining the research process.
N - Novel, able to provide new findings.
E - Ethical.
R - Relevant, advancing science or influencing clinical
care, health care policy among others.
• Example of a FINER Research Question
– Do nurses in Kalala hospital practice the hand washing procedure
as stipulated by the hospital infection control handbook?
• Example of a non FINER Research Question
– Are nurses washing hands?
 Example of a research question
• An example of a research question might be? Is the
effect on adherence contributed by inadequacy
supply of ARV’S?
RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
Def: A research objective is a clear, concise, declarative,
statement expressed to direct a study. It focuses on
identification and description of variables and/or
determination of the relationships among variables.
• Objectives describe the expected results arising from the
study
• Usually broad and specific objectives are stated
Importance of research objectives
• Research objectives help to:
a) Bridge the gap between the research purpose and the
study design.
b) Guide on planning for data collection and analysis.
 c) Summarize what is to be achieved by the study.
d) Build a close link with the statement of the problem.
e) Keep the researcher within the scope of study by
defining the area of focus.
• Research objectives are sub-divided into broad
and specific objectives. When formulating good
research objectives, the objectives should have
the following characteristics, using the acronym
‘SMART’
• S - Specific; clearly identifies the item at hand for
investigation.
M - Measurable; being quantifiable
A - Achievable; acquire the set objectives
R - Realistic
T - Time bound; in form of human, financial and
material resources
• Example of a SMART Objective
– To establish the number of children born at home
within the last two years in Ganga village
• Example of a Non SMART Objective
– To find out the level of home deliveries.
Note: Your research objectives should develop
logically from your research questions and
the problem stated
 CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH
OBJECTIVES
• Broad
• Specific
Broad Objectives
• describe the expected contributions arising from
the study.
• relate the reasonable and expected contributions
of the study to broad social, economic, or health
concerns
• contribute to the justification of why research on
the problem is required
NOTE
• Note that broad objectives are the expected
contributions.
• The investigator does not promise that the
contribution will occur and therefore, usually
does not try to measure them.
 Guidelines for writing research
objectives
The writing of the broad objectives will be guided by
the following questions:
• How will the results from the study help improve
service delivery, improve training programs, or
assist in the design of educational materials?
• In other words, what are the anticipated
contributions of the study
 EXAMPLES OF BROAD OBJECTIVES
• The broad objective of this study is to contribute
towards increasing utilization of RH services among
Kenyan adolescents.
• The broad objective of this study is to contribute
towards reduction of the prevalence of Malaria
among the study population.
• The broad objective of this study is to contribute to
a better understanding of the factors that affect
the use of maternal health care services in the
study area
 SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
• In contrast to broad objectives that state what is
expected to happen, specific objectives relate
directly to the research problem situation.
• These are the outputs or deliverables of the study
for which the researcher is responsible
• They indicate the variables that will be examined
and measured.
• An immediate objective represents a promise by
the investigator that certain specific variables will
be examined
• Specific objectives are expressed in measurable
terms
 EXAMPLES OF SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES
• To establish the influence of education on the use of
treated mosquito nets in the study area.
• To establish the association between the attitude of
health workers and client satisfaction in the study
area.
• To identify the effect of public health education
campaign on the uptake of modern maternal health
care services.
HYPOTHESIS OF THE STUDY
Description:
• This is a statement about an expected relationship
between two or more variables that permits
empirical testing
• It is the researcher’s prediction or explanation of
the relationships between two variables. E.g.
-Persons with Type II diabetes mellitus who have greater
knowledge of their diseases will have a higher rate of
adherence to treatment regimen than those with less
knowledge.
 Difference between Specific
objectives, Broad objectives and
hypothesis
• While broad objectives identify the anticipated
contributions arising from a study,
• and specific objectives specify what will be done or
measured in the study,
• hypotheses specify the expected relationship among the
variables
 Where are hypothesis required?
• They are most appropriate for field
intervention or evaluative studies.
• Diagnostic or exploratory studies do not
normally require hypotheses because they
generally do not test relationships between
variables.
WHY HYPOTHESES ARE IMPORTANT?
• Study hypotheses serve to direct and guide the
research.
• They indicate the major independent and
dependent variables of interest.
• They suggest the type of data that must be
collected and the type of analysis that must be
conducted in order to measure the relationship
among the variables
 TYPES OF HYPOTHESES
1. Directional Hypothesis: it predicts an outcome in
a specific direction. Example;
Persons with Type II diabetes mellitus and have greater
knowledge of their diseases will have a higher rate of
adherence to treatment regimen than those with less
knowledge.
2. Non Directional Hypothesis: it indicates there is
a difference or correlation but does not specify
which. For example:
Persons with Type II diabetes mellitus who follow a
structured programme on their condition have a higher
rate of adherence to treatment.
• This does not indicate a directional relationship.
• Null Hypothesis and Alternative Hypothesis
1) Null hypothesis (denoted as H0): The null
(statistical) hypothesis is used for statistical testing
and interpretation. It states no difference exists
between groups or no correlations between
variables. Example;
There is no difference in performance of national
examinations between standard eight pupils from rural
primary schools and standard eight students from urban
primary school in Kenya.
2) Alternative hypothesis (denoted as H1): It states
that there is a difference or correlation.
 Considerations in Writing the
Hypothesis
• In writing study hypotheses, always think in terms
of the expected relationship between variables
HOW TO WRITE A HYPOTHESIS
• Think first about the central problem your study will
address (the dependent variable).
• Next, consider what factor or factors (the
independent variables) might cause, determine, or
influence the dependent variable
• Finally, ask yourself if the relationship between the
independent and dependent variables is direct or
indirect through a set of intervening variables.
VARIABLES
Def: Variables are defined as quality, properties or
characteristics of persons, things or situation that change or
vary/ assume different values. For example: sex (male and
female) age (20–25, 26–30 years) academic success, stress
and pain.
Types of variables
1) Independent Variable(treatment/experimental) It’s a
variable that influences other variables.
It is perceived as contributing to or enabling a particular
outcome.
• Independent variables usually describe what the researcher
wishes to measure in order to determine its effect on an
observed phenomenon (the dependent variable)
 – It is the intervention or treatment that the
researcher performs to see the resulting change
in the dependant variable. It is also referred to as
the input.
2) Dependent Variable: This is the outcome variable.
It reflects the effects (outcome) or response to the
independent variable.
It is the variable that appears, disappears,
diminishes or increases.
it describes the problem under study
For example, to determine the effects of salt intake on
hypertension, the blood pressure is the dependant
variable and salt intake is the independent variable.
3) Extraneous Variables: These are uncontrolled
variables that influence the findings of the
research study.
They influence both the dependent and
independent variables. These are called threats to
internal and external validity of the study and may
bias the selection, the time factor, and the
instrument used.
4) Demographic Variables :These are demographic
attributes. They are variables that cannot be
manipulated or influenced by the researcher, for
example, age, sex religious beliefs or educational
level
5) Control variables: If a researcher suspects that a
certain variable is likely to influence the research
results, he or she should control for that variable
(the extraneous) in the study.
The introduction of a control variable in research
study increases the validity of the data and
therefore it leads to more convincing
generalizations.
6) Intervening variable: The logical status of an
intervening variable is that it is recognized as being
caused by the independent variable and as being a
determinant of the dependent variable. i.e.
Independent intervening dependent
variable variable
variable
• An intervening variable comes in between the
independent and the dependent variables.
• When intervening variable are used as control
variables, one must establish the dominant
direction of influence.
• The independent variable influences the
intervening variable and the intervening variable
influences the dependent variable.
 STEP 5: LITERATURE REVIEW

Description: is a summary of theoretical and empirical

sources to generate a picture of what is known and not
known about a particular problem.
• This is a systematic review of existing information
(literature) about a specific subject or topic.
• The information could be published such as journal articles
and books or unpublished such as research reports or
monographs.
Literature review entails;
• The history of the problem
• The magnitude & distribution of the problem, including
the population being affected
• The severity of the problem
• Methodology (ies) used in the previous studies
• Theoretical and analytical frameworks used
• Hypotheses and variables used and their measurements
• Research Designs used
• Methods of data collection used
• Sampling procedures and sample sizes used
• Methods of data analysis used
LITERURE REVIEW ENTAILS CNTD’
• Main findings of the previous researches or
studies
• Main conclusions and recommendations of
previous studies
• Past efforts to solve the problem
THE MAIN PURPOSES OF LITERATURE REVIEW ARE
TO:
1. Determine what has been done already as regards
the research problem under investigation.
2. Identify strategies, procedures and measuring
instruments that have been found useful in the
investigation of the research problem.
3. Help make the researcher familiar with previous
studies and thus facilitate the interpretation of the
study.
4. Help the researcher to narrow the research topic.
5. Help determine new approaches and stimulate
new ideas
 When reviewing any literature, the researcher needs to:
1. Assess the strengths and weaknesses of past work on
the subject
2. Report any inconsistent findings
3. Identify gaps in the knowledge
4. Determine the contribution of proposed study
5. Consider the possibility of unintentional duplication
Steps in carrying a Literature Review
• Be familiar with the library
• Make a list of key words or phrases to guide the
review
• With the key words/ phrases go to the computer
internet and do a search
• Summarize references on cards for easy
organization
• Analyze, organize and report in an orderly manner
• Make an outline of main topics/ themes, headlines
and sub-titles
• Studies with contrary views should not be ignored.
Attempt to account for the differences in opinion
• The more general literature should be covered first
before narrowing to what is more specific to the
research problem –this paves way for identifying
testable hypotheses
• 2 major sources of information.
– primary and secondary sources.
Primary Source This is the work written by the
person who is actually involved in, or is
responsible for, the generation of the
idea published.
• It can also be information from a person who
actually observed or witnessed the occurrence
under investigation.
Secondary Source :involves summaries or quoted
content from a primary source.
• It is usually information given by someone who
was not a direct observer or participant of the
events described.
Sources of secondary information
1. Scholarly Journals
2. Theses and Dissertations: research projects written
by Masters and PhD students.
3. Govt. Documents; i.e. policy papers, research reports
owned by the govt., annual reports of hospitals and
government ministries
4. Papers Presented at Conferences
5. Books
6. Computers: Computers also have databases prepared
for literature search. Examples of such databases are
MEDLINE or INDEX MEDICUS, Pub Med
 PLAGIARISM
• “The substantial use, without acknowledgement
and with intend to deceive the examiners or
knowing that the examiners might be deceived,
representing, whether by copying or paraphrase,
the ideas or discoveries of another or of others as
one's own work submitted for assessment.
 HOW TO AVOID PLAGIARISM
• Summarize- In your own words and cite reference
• Paraphrase- Translate source into your own words
and cite reference
• Quotation- Word-for-word and cite reference
(using quotation marks- “……”)
 STEP 6: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
• Every researcher has to identify an appropriate research
design for use in the study. Identification of a specific study
design will depend on :
A research design is the plan, structure & strategy of
investigations of answering the research question.
 Types of research designs
• Experimental Design: Experimental and Quasi-
experimental.
• Survey Design: Comparative and Correlation.
• Descriptive Design: Descriptive and Explorative.
• Case Study Design
1. Experimental Research Design
Commonly used in clinical settings because of its
accuracy and reliability.
It could be subdivided into true experimental and
quasi-experimental.
• Experimental research designs are concerned with
testing hypotheses and establishing causality.
• This design tests the hypothesis of relationships,
that is, attempts to make predictions of future
outcomes based on a causal model implementing
strategies to control the predicted outcome. If 'X'
occurs 'Y' follows and so on.
• In an experimental research design, the
researcher controls or manipulates the action of
the independent or causal variable(s) and
observes and measures the action or outcome on
the dependant variable. For example, the
effectiveness of a particular drug such as paracetamol in
relieving moderate pain.
Characteristics of experimental research design
Manipulation: the researcher controls the
independent variable, which can be an event,
intervention or treatment that is expected to have
some effect on the dependant variable.
Control :The researcher exercises control over the
experimental situation by eliminating the actions
of other possible variables beyond the
independent variable.
Randomizing : Every subject is given an equal
chance to participate in the study. The researcher
assigns the subjects to the experimental or
control groups on a random basis.
• In a quasi-experimental design, some of the above
rules are relaxed. For example, there might be no
need for having a control group or at times
randomization may not be included. The quasi-
experimental design enables the search for
knowledge and examination of causality in
situations where complete control is not possible.
Advantages
1. Most powerful design for testing the hypothesis
of cause-effect relationships between variables.
2. It is practical, feasible and can be generalized to
some extent. This type of design introduces some
control over certain extraneous variables.
Disadvantages
1. In most real situations, it is difficult to conduct a
true experimental design, since some of the
variables cannot be manipulated or controlled.
2. At times it becomes quite difficult to get
randomized research subjects or even a control
group.
3. As a result of the need for randomization, control
and manipulation with the aim of establishing
cause-effect relationships, the design becomes
very expensive, both in terms of time and
money.
 2. Survey Research Design
• Is the systematic gathering of information. Survey
studies are concerned with gathering information
from a sample of population.
• The purpose of the study is usually to identify
general trends or patterns in the collected data.
• It’s designed to obtain information from the
population regarding the prevalence, distribution,
and interrelations of variables within those
populations.
• Survey studies primarily yield quantitative data.
They are mainly cross sectional in design.
• They mainly deal with (investigate) what people
do, for example, how or what they eat, how they
meet their health needs, what kind of family
planning behaviour they engage in and so on.
Advantages
1. It is flexible and broad in scope.
2. It can be applied to many people
3. It can focus on wide range of topics
The survey design is better suited for extensive rather than
intensive analysis of a situation.
It is usually descriptive and specific based on the situation
that needs intervention, for planning purposes, monitoring
and evaluation of services.
• In a survey the researcher designs the phenomenon
and study but does not manipulate any variables
nor do they make any efforts to determine the
relationships between variables.
• In the correlation survey meanwhile, the researcher
attempts to determine and describe what
relationship exists between variables.
• One independent variable is correlated with one or
more dependent variables. Then statistical methods
are applied to describe if the variables relate at all
and what kind of relationship they have, that is,
positive correlation or, negative correlation
• When there is a positive correlation is an
indication that the more the exposure the high
the outcome of interest, for example smoking
exposure and lung disease, which is the
outcome.
• When there is no correlation one would conclude
that the exposure is not related to the outcome,
for example teething and diarrhoeal episodes.
• When there is a negative correlation it means
that the more the exposure the less the outcome,
for example tetanus vaccination and tetanus
infection.
3. Descriptive or Explorative Research Design
• Is the systematic collection and presentation of
data to give clear picture of a particular situation.
• It involves the systematic collection of information
and aims to discover and describe new facts
about a situation, people, activities, or events.
• Its main purposes include observing, describing
and documenting all aspects of a situation as it
naturally occurs.
• At times, descriptive designs are used as a starting
point for hypothesis generation or theory testing.
• In the exploratory descriptive design, the main
purpose is to explore the dimensions of a
phenomenon (problem) as well as the major
characteristics or facts that influence the
phenomenon.
• In descriptive design, no manipulation of variables
is involved as opposed to experimental design.
• Similarly, no dependent or independent variables
are used because no attempt is made to establish
causality. The overall purpose of descriptive
research is to provide a picture of a phenomenon
as it naturally occurs, as opposed to studying the
impacts of the phenomenon or intervention.
 Categories of descriptive research design
1. Explorative Descriptive Design: the researcher explores
a particular problem to discover what is there and if it
could be solved. The study focuses on new events,
evidence, or practices.
2. Comparative Descriptive Design: Is mainly used when
the researcher intends to examine and describe
particular variables in two or more groups. The concept
here is to compare the groups and how they differ or
how similar they are in relation to the variable of
interest.
4. Time Dimensional Designs: Are used in epidemiological
studies and are further sub-divided into longitudinal that
is when it examines changes in a group for a long period
and it is cross-sectional where the data is collected at one
point in time.
5. Retrospective Study Design: Also known as 'export facts'.
It is a study design aimed at a looking back in order to link
the present with the past or what happened in the past.
6. Prospective Study Design: Is similar to the longitudinal
study as it starts from the present and ends by looking
into the future. It is further divided into two categories:
descriptive and explanatory.
• The subjects for the study are recruited based on
presence or absence of an exposure of interest (workers
in x-ray department) and followed up over many years to
establish if they will develop outcomes of interest, for
example cancer of the skin or reproductive health
complications.
Features used to diff. types of descriptive res. design
1. Representativeness of the study data sources, for
example, whether random, stratified, non probability.
2. Time frame of measurement, i.e., whether short, cross
sectional or longitudinal.
3. Whether the study involves any comparisons, for
example, with another group.
4. Whether the design is focused on a simple descriptive
 strengths weakness
Lower costs Does not answer questions
of causal-effect relationship
nature
Relatively easy to implement Expensive when complex
data collection techniques
are used
Ability to yield results in May not consider variables
fairly short period in depth
Results are relatively Generalizability of the
straightforward to analyze findings may not be achieved
and communicate to
an audience
 4. Case Study Research Design

• A case study is 'an in depth study of one

individual, a group of individuals or an institution’
• It is a detailed account of a particular experience
event or situation.
• It is meant to provide a description of people’s
thoughts, feelings and perceptions.
• It doesn’t aim at providing a causal relationship.
Neither does it attempt to test a hypothesis.
For example, a case study on why in a certain health
centres mothers are not coming in for their
antenatal services.
Limitations of case studies
1. They require plenty of time.
2. They are costly.
3. Have high possibility of subject drop out.
4. Data analysis also calls for skills and experience,
particularly if the study is carried over a long period
of time
• Case study designs are used when:
1. There is a need to demonstrate the effectiveness of a
specific therapeutic technique
2. Generating and testing hypotheses
3. There is need to generate knowledge on a particular
issue or situation that has not been adequately
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• What is qualitative research?
– Is a form of research that involves description.
– It seeks to describe &analyze the culture &
behaviour of humans& their groups.
– It relies on reasons behind various aspects of
behaviour. It focuses on understanding, rather than
predicting or controlling phenomena.
– It investigates the ‘why’ and ‘how’ of decision
making
– Includes interviewing, f.g.d, & questionnaires.
• QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH.
• Relies on the principle of verifiability.
• Meaning confirmation or proof.
• Researchers values, intrerpretation & feelings
are considered.
• Establishes cause effect relationship.
• Focuses on measurement. e.g numerical data.
 Distinction between qualitative and
quantitative research
Quantitative Qualitative
what why
Where how
when
CHARACTERISTIC QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Philosophical Origin Logical Positivism Naturalistic, Interpretive,

Humanistic
Focus Concise, Objective, Reductionistic Broad, Subjective, Holistic

Reasoning Deductive Inductive

Basis Of Knowing Cause-Effect Relationship Meaning, Discovery,
Understanding
Theoretical Focus Tests Theory Develops Theory
Researcher Control Shared Interpretation
Involvement
Methods Of Structured Interviews, Questionnaire, Unstructured Interviews And
Measurement Observations, Etc Observations

Sample Size Predetermined Determined At Saturation

Data Numbers Words
Analysis Statistical Individual Interpretation
Findings Generalization, Accept Or Reject Uniqueness, Dynamic,
Theoretical Propositions Understanding Of Phenomena,
And New Theory
 BIAS
• Systematic, non-random deviation of results and
inferences from the truth, or processes leading to
such deviation. Any trend in the collection,
analysis, interpretation, publication or review of
data that can lead to conclusions which are
systematically different from the truth.

Quantitative study designs 104

 TYPES OF BIAS

• Two main types:

 Selection bias: occurs when the subjects studied
are not representative of the target population
about which conclusions are to be drawn.
 Information bias: results from the different
quality of information and errors in obtaining and
classifying information.

Quantitative study designs 105

 Types of selection bias
• Migration bias: results from migration of
diseased subjects from an exposed status to an
unexposed status during the course of a study.
• Response bias: Those who agree to be in a study
may be in some way different with those who
refuse to participate.
 Volunteers may be different from those who are
enlisted.

Quantitative study designs 106

 Types of information bias
• Interviewer bias: An interviewer’s knowledge may
influence the structure of questions and the
manner of presentation, which may influence
responses.
• Recall bias: Those with a particular outcome or
exposure may remember events more clearly or
amplify their recollections.
• Diagnostic suspicion bias: when potentially
exposed subjects are subjected to more and in-
depth diagnostic procedures and tests (cohort
studies?).

Quantitative study designs 107

 Types of information bias cont’d
• Loss to follow-up: Those that are lost to follow-
up or who withdraw from the study may be
different from those who are followed for the
entire study.
• Surveillance bias: The group with the known
exposure or outcome may be followed more
closely or longer than the comparison group.

Quantitative study designs 108

 BASIC TERMS IN RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

• Population: refers to an entire group of individuals,

events or objects having a common observable
characteristic. It is an aggregate of all that conforms to a
given specification
• The researcher first defines the population to which she
or he wants to generalize the results. This is referred to
as the “target population or the “universe”.
• Sample: is a smaller group obtained from the accessible
population. Each member or case in this sample is
referred to as “subject”. Sometimes, the terms
“respondents” or interviewers” are used.
• Sampling: the process of selecting a number of
individuals for a study in such a way that the
individuals selected represent the large group from
which they were selected.
– The purpose of sampling is to secure a representative
group which will enable the researcher to gain
information about the population
 ADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING
• Economy in expenditure. if data are collected for the entire
population, cost will be very high
• Economy in time. Sampling is less time consuming than
census technique
• There’s a greater scope & flexibility of studies when a
sample is used
• Greater accuracy. Sampling ensures completeness & high
degree of accuracy due to a limited area of operation
• It’s possible to collect intensive & exhaustive data as the
number is limited
• Allows the researcher to work even with limited resources
 DISADVANTAGES OF SAMPLING
• There are chances of bias as sampling may involve
biased selection & thereby lead to draw erroneous
conclusions
• Difficulty in getting a representative sample
especially when phenomena under study are of a
complex nature
• Requires specialized knowledge of sampling
technique, statistical analysis & calculation of
probable error
 Characteristics of a good sample
• One that reproduces the characteristics of the
population with the greatest possible accuracy
• Should be free from error due to bias or due
to deliberate selection of the unit of the
sample
• There should not be any substitution of
originally selected unit by some other more
convenient way
• Sampling Frame: Is a comprehensive list of all the
sampling elements in the target population, for
example, the list of nurses working in a particular
district, the number of under five children in a
village or all the households in a village.
• Representative Sample: the sample that
resembles the population from which it is drawn
in all aspects. It should possess all the variables a
researcher is interested in, for example,
educational level, socioeconomic factors etc.
• Sampling Bias: Occurs when the researcher has
not carefully selected the samples that are
expected to represent the general target pop.
• Sampling Error: Refers to the difference between
population(è.g, the average age of the population)
and the sample. (for e.g, the average age of the
sample group). It is the degree of deviation of the
sample from the population from which it was
drawn.
Sampling Techniques 2 types
– Probability or random sampling.
– Non probability sampling.
The nature of your research will determine which
type of sampling you should use.
 Large-scale exploratory/descriptive studies almost
always use probability sampling techniques.
 Intervention studies sometimes use probability
sampling but also frequently use non probability
sampling.
 Qualitative studies almost always use non-
probability samples
 FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN
SELECTING A SAMPLING TECHNIQUE
• Purpose of the survey: if researcher intends to generalize
the findings based on the sample survey to the population,
then appropriate probability sampling method must be
selected. This depends on the geographical area of the
survey, the size & nature of population under study
• measurability: where research objectives require statistical
inference, sample should be drawn by applying s.r.s.
method or stratified sampling depending n whether the
population is homogenous or heterogeneous
• Information about population: where no information
about a population is available, it’s difficult to apply
probability sampling method. Exploratory study with non
probability sampling may be made to gain a better idea of
the population then adopting appropriate probability
sampling method after gaining sufficient knowledge about
the population
• Nature of the population: variables to be studied. If the
population is homogenous, even s.r.s. will give a
representative sample. If the population is heterogeneous,
stratified sampling is appropriate
• geographical area of the study & the size of the
population: if the area covered by survey is very large & the
size of population is large, multistage & cluster sampling
may be appropriate
• financial resources: if limited, choose a less
costly sampling method like quota sampling
• time limitation: choose a less time consuming
method like s.r.s. instead of stratified sampling
where time is limited
Probability (random) Sampling
• Allows for a much more a representative sample
of the population and enables the estimation of
sampling error.
• In probability sampling, each study unit has an
equal or at least a known non-zero probability
of being selected in the sample.
• It allows the study to be generalized to other areas.
• Ensures that each unit of the sample is chosen on
the basis of chance.
Probability Sampling Techniques
1. Simple Random Sampling:
• Each unit (subject) has the chance to be selected.
• It involves one stage selection. It also allows the
researcher access to the study population
• There are several ways of selecting a random
sample using this technique. These include, the
lottery method, use of random tables, or tossing a
coin to help you decide where and how to start.
2. Systematic or Interval Sampling:
• This is a modification of simple random sampling, which is
ordinarily less time-consuming and easier to implement.
• The estimated number of elements in the larger population
is divided by the desired sample size, yielding a sampling
interval, n. It is thre4 the selection of every nth element
from a sampling frame, where n, the sampling interval, is
calculated as;
 n= number in population÷ number in sample
• This involves listing the population elements in an arbitrary
order and selecting every nth case, starting with a
randomly selected number between 1 and n. The selected
study units constitute the sample
• It is much more efficient and much less expensive
to do than simple random sampling.
3. Stratified Random Sampling: When sub-
populations vary considerably, it is advantageous
to sample each subpopulation (stratum)
independently.
Stratification is the process of grouping members of
the population into relatively homogeneous
subgroups, e.g., by education level, before
sampling.
The strata should be mutually exclusive, i.e., every
element in the population must be assigned to
only one stratum.
• The strata should also be collectively exhaustive,
that is, no population element can be excluded.
• Random sampling is then applied within each
stratum. This often improves the
representativeness of the sample by reducing
sampling error.
4. Cluster Sampling: Is a sampling technique used
when 'natural' groupings are evident in the
population.
The total population is divided into these groups (or
clusters), and a sample of the groups is selected.
The required information is then collected from the
elements within each selected group.
• This may be done for every element in these
groups, or a subsample of elements may be
selected within each of these groups.
• Elements within a cluster should ideally be as
homogeneous as possible.
• Each cluster should be a small scale version of the
total population.
• A random sampling technique is then used on any
relevant clusters to choose which clusters to
include in the study.
Non Probability Sampling
• This type of sampling is used for interventional
studies.
• Non-probability sampling refers to the selection of
a sample that is not based on known probabilities.
• Elements chosen will most effectively represent
the population.
• There is no way of ensuring that every element has
a chance for inclusion in the non probability
sample.
• E.G, it is usually necessary to use non-
probability samples when studying sex
workers and their clients, injecting drug users,
gay men and lesbians
1. Purposive or Judgmental Sampling: it is where the
researcher selects a particular group or groups Believed to
be reliable for the study. E.g. to study the effects of
abortion on learning, the researcher may make efforts to
contact students who had previously terminated their
pregnancies.

Advantage: it gives the researcher a free hand to respond

according to their judgment.
Disadvantages:
 sampling biases,
 the possibility of unrepresentative samples.
 lack of generalizations of the study findings.
2. Quota Sampling: The population is divided into relevant
strata e.g age, gender/ geographical region. The total
sample is allocated among the strata in direct proportion to
their estimated or actual size in the population. Then resort
to haphazard/ accidental sampling because no effort is
made to contact people who are difficult to reach in the
quota.
3. Convenience or Accidental/Availability Sampling
• The researcher is unable to control bias at all. The study
units that happen to be available at the time of data
collection are selected and used as a sample. This type of
sampling allows the utilization of any available target
population.
4. Snow Ball Sampling: it is a technique for developing a
research sample where existing study subjects recruit
future subjects from among their acquaintances. Thus, the
sample group appears to grow like a rolling snowball.
• This sampling technique is often used in hidden populations
which are difficult for researchers to access. E.g.
populations include drug users and commercial sex
workers.
 Difference btwn probability & non-
probability sampling
• Probability sampling involves random selection,
non-probability doesn’t involve random selection.
• Probability sampling represents the ppln well, non-
probability samples may or may not represent the
ppln well
SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION USING FISCHER’S STATISTICAL
FORMULA
• In social science research, the following formula can be
used to determine the sample size? FISCHER’S statistical
formula (Mugenda A. & Mugenda O., 1994)
Z2 pq
n=
d2
Where:
n = the desired sample size (if the target population is greater
than 10,000)
z = the standard normal deviate at the required confidence
level, usually set at 1.96 which corresponds to the 95%
confidence level
p = the proportion in the target population estimated
to have characteristics being measured.
q = the proportion in the target population estimated
not to have characteristics being measured=1-p
d = the level of statistical significance/ degree of
accuracy desired, usually set at the 0.05 level
• If there is no estimate available of the proportion
in the target population assumed to have the
characteristics of interest, 50% should be used as
recommended by Fischer’s et al.
• For example, if the proportion of a target
population with a certain characteristic is 0.50,
the Z statistic is 1.96, and we desire accuracy at
the 0.05 level, then the sample size is

(1.96)2 (0.50) (0.50) = 384.16

n= (0.05)2
• If the target population is less than 10,000, the
required sample size will be smaller. In such cases,
calculate a final sample estimate (nf) using the
following formula:
n
nf = {1+ (n/N)}
Where:
nf = the desired sample size (when the population
is less than 10,000)
n = the desired sample size (when the population
is more than 10,000).
N = the estimate of the population size
• For example: if n = 384 and now our N is 1000, what
is our nƒ?
384/(1+384/1000)
= 384/1.384= 277 respondents
Commonly used confidence coefficients & their z
values
Ρ Z
0.90 1.64
0.95 1.96
0.96 2.00
0.98 2.33
0.99 2.58
RESEARCH INSTRUMENTS
1.INTERVIEWS
• Are questions asked orally.
a. Structured Interviews.
Involves subjecting every informant in a sample to
the same stimuli,e.g. asking each informant
similar questions.
Advantages
1. It is time saving. Respondents answer what has been
asked.
2. Good for measuring attitudes and most other content of
interest.
3. Allows probing and posing of follow-up questions by the
interviewer.
4. Can provide in-depth information.
5. Can provide information about participants’ internal
meanings and ways of thinking.
6. Closed-ended interviews provide exact information
needed by researcher.
Disadvantages
1. The instrument demands a much longer time to complete
than other instruments, such as questionnaires.
2. Due to the presence of the researcher, respondents may
withhold certain vital information or even change
information to please the researcher- Reactive effects
3. In-person interviews usually are expensive and time
consuming.
4. Investigator effects may occur (e.g., untrained
interviewers may distort data because of personal
biases and poor interviewing skills).
5. Interviewees may not recall important information
and may lack self-awareness.
• SEMI STRUCTURED INTERVIEWS.
• Are interviews based on the use of an
interview guide. Is a written list of questions/
topics that need to be covered by the
interview. Types include.
• A) Focused interviews- intensively investigates
a particular topic. To get a complete and
detailed understanding of the topic.
• Case studies- collects comprehensive,
systematic & in depth information about a
particular case of interest.
• ADVANTAGES
• Are flexible- consist of open & closed ended
questions.
• In depth information is gathered.
• DISADVANTAGES
• Can be time consuming
• Analysis can be problematic.
• UNSTRUCTURED INTERVIEWS.
• Researcher has some idea in mind of the
topics to be covered and may use some sort of
topic list as a reminder.
• There is minimal control over the order in
which topics are covered & over respondents
answers. Neither specific questions are
answered nor possible answers pre- defined.
• Aim is to get informants to open up.
• Researcher stimulates the informant to give
more information.
• Useful in studying sensitive topics such as
political topics.
• Hence you must ask yourself as a researcher.
• What do I want to get out of these interview?
• With whom am I going to conduct these
interviews?
• How do I know they will talk to me?
• ADVANTAGES
• They are flexible. There are no pre-defined
questions.
• Respondent feels as part of the team since no
rigidity is displayed.
• Useful for studying sensitive topics.eg.
Abortion.
• DISADVANTAGES
• They are time consuming since respondent
can dwell on one issue.
• Respondent can comment on issues in a
haphazard way.
• It is difficult to sytematize & analyze data.
2. Focus Group Discussions
• They are interviews with groups of 5-15 people
who share certain characteristics, which are
relevant for the study.
• Discussion is carefully planned & designed to
obtain information on the participant’s beliefs on
a defined area of interest.
• Topics to be discussed are decided beforehand.
• There is a predetermined list of open ended
questions.
• Participants discuss about the topics presented.
• Group moderators should be trained.
• Members should be homogenous.
• Researcher has less control over the flow of
the discussion and results are hard to analyze.
Advantages
1. Allows a large number of respondents to be
interviewed at one go, which saves time and
money.
2. Useful for exploring ideas and concepts.
3. Provides window into participants’ internal
thinking.
4. Can obtain in-depth information.
5. Can examine how participants react to each other.
Disadvantage
1. Because of the number of respondents involved, calls
for diligence and skill in ensuring that the process
runs smoothly and yields the desired information.
2. Sometimes expensive.
3. May be difficult to find a focus group moderator with
good facilitative and rapport building skills.
4. Reactive and investigator effects may occur if
participants feel they are being watched or studied.
5. May be dominated by one or two participants.
3. Non Participatory Structured Observation
• It is observing a given situation from the outside.
• The observer declares their intention to observe
and goes ahead to watch the activities being carried
out without asking questions or interfering in any
way.
• As the activities to be observed progress, the obse-
rver remains in the background, keenly observing
and noting down events without comment.
• It provides the in-depth and variety of information.
• The observers are used as measuring instruments
and provide a uniquely sensitive and intelligent tool.
Advantages
1. Allows one to directly see what people do without having
to rely on what they say they do.
2. Provides firsthand experience, especially if the observer
participates in activities.
3. Can provide relatively objective measurement of
behavior (especially for standardized observations).
4. Observer can determine what does not occur.
5. Observer may see things that escape the awareness of
people in the setting.
6. Excellent way to discover what is occurring in a setting.
7. Can be used with participants with weak verbal skills.
9. May provide information on things people would
otherwise be unwilling to talk about.
10. Good for description.
Disadvantages
1. Reasons for observed behavior may be unclear.
2. Reactive effects may occur when respondents know they
are being observed (e.g., people being observed may
behave in atypical ways).
3. Investigator effects (e.g., personal biases and selective
perception of observers)
4. Sampling of observed people and settings may be
limited.
5. Cannot observe large or dispersed populations.
6. Some settings and content of interest cannot be
observed.
7. Collection of unimportant material may be
moderately high.
8. More expensive to conduct than questionnaires
and tests.
9. Data analysis can be time consuming
4. QUESTIONNAIRES
• A questionnaire is a self-report data collection instrument
that is filled out by research participants.
principles of questionnaire construction
1. Use words that are simple ,direct and familiar to all.
2.Questions should be as clear as possible.
3. Define the terms that can easily be misinterpreted.
4. Avoid double barrelled questions. E.g do you favour or
oppose….
5.Beware of double negatives. E.g are you against not
allowing a student to…
6.Underline a word if you wish toindicate special emphasis
on it.
7.Avoid questions that arte leading/ suggest the answer
that is expected.
8. Be sure that the alternatives are enough & appropriate
for the intended questions.
9. If a question is very personal, then give a reason as to
why the answer should be given.
10. Determine whether you will use open ended or close
ended questions.
11. Use mutually exclusive and exhaustive response
categories for closed-ended questions.
• Mutually exclusive categories do not overlap (e.g., ages 0-
10, 10-20, 20-30 are NOT mutually exclusive and should
be rewritten as less than 10, 10-19, 20-29, 30-39, .
• Exhaustive categories include all possible responses (e.g.,
if you are doing a national survey of adult citizens (i.e., 18
or older) then the these categories (18-19, 20-29, 30-39,
40-49, 50-59, 60-69) are NOT exhaustive because there is
no where to put someone who is 70 years old or older.
12.Consider the different types of response categories
available for closed-ended questionnaire items.
 ESSENTIALS OF A GOOD
QUESTIONNAIRE
• Is simple to understand.
• Instructions are clearly given
• There are no leading questions.
• There is a balance of questions pre topic.
Strengths of questionnaires
• Good for measuring attitudes and eliciting other content
from research participants.
• Inexpensive (especially mail questionnaires and group
administered questionnaires).
• Can provide information about participants’ internal
meanings and ways of thinking.
• Can administer to probability samples.
• Can be administered to group.
Weaknesses of questionnaires
• Usually must be kept short.
• Reactive effects may occur (e.g., interviewees may try to
show only what is socially desirable).
• Nonresponsive to selective items.
• People filling out questionnaires may not recall
important information and may lack self-awareness.
• Response rate may be low for mail and email
questionnaires.
• Data analysis can be time consuming for open-ended
items.
 5.ACTION RESEARCH
DESCRIPTION:
• This is whereby the researcher actually becomes part of
the study by participating in various interventions
involved in the study
• Useful in collecting qualitative data
• Action Research is a framework that is:
– Collaborative
– There is a practical intervention made - i.e. you do
something to make a change or intervention in a
situation that you research
– The researcher will be actively involved in the planned
intervention(s).
• STANDARDIZED TESTS.
• CHARACTERISTICS
• Validity- is a measure of how well a test
measures what it is supposed to measure.
• Reliability- is a measure of how consistent the
results from a test are. If you administer a test
to a subject twice do you get the same score
on the second administration as you did on
the first?
 CONDUCTING A PRE-TEST OR PILOT STUDY
• A pilot study is the study carried out at the end of
• The planning phase of research, in order to explore
& test the research elements.
• A pilot study is a small scale rehearsal that
proceeds as if it were the actual study except for
the fact that subjects who will participate in the
actual study are not used.
A pre-test is the process of measuring the
effectiveness of the instrument used to gather
data. E.G A research tool tested on subjects who
meet the criterion of the study sample.
purposes of a pre-test or pilot study:
1) To determine whether the proposed study is feasible
2) Identify any problems with the research design
3) To ensure that items in the data collection instrument
are stated clearly and have the same meaning to all
research respondents
4) To assess the time taken to administer the research
instrument
5) Determine whether the sample is representative of the
population
6) To determine the effectiveness of the sampling
technique used
7) Give the researcher the real experience in the field
8) Determine the human and financial resources
requirement for the study
9) Determine the effectiveness of the training given to
research assistants where necessary
10) Evaluate the procedure for data processing and analysis
 Difference between 'pilot study' and
'pretesting' in research methodology
• Most of the times these terms are used
interchangeably, but;
• A PRE-TEST usually refers to a small-scale trial of
particular research components.
• A PILOT STUDY is the process of carrying out a
preliminary study, going through the entire research
procedure with a small sample
 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH
Ethics: is defined as that branch of philosophy which
deals with one’s conduct and serves as a guide to
one’s behaviour’.
Research ethics fundamentally consist of collecting,
analyzing and interpreting data in a way that
respects the rights of your participants and
respondents.
Basic Ethical Principles Underlining the Protection of
Human Rights
1. Principle of Respect for Persons
a) Individuals are autonomous, that is, they have the right
to self-determination and this right should be respected.
This means the research respondents have the right to:
a) Accept or decline to participate in the study without
punishment or prejudice
b) Withdraw from the study at any stage
c) Withhold information
d) Seek clarification concerning the purpose of the study
• Individuals with diminished autonomy require protection.
This group includes children, the mentally impaired,
unconscious patients and institutionalized persons.
• For this group of persons, you will need to seek the
consent of their legal guardian.
2. Principle of Justice
This includes the subjects’ right to fair selection and
treatment and their right to privacy:
• Right to Privacy: This is the freedom of an individual to
determine the time, extent and the circumstances under
which private information will be shared with or withheld
from others. The privacy of the subject is considered to be
protected if the subject is informed and consents to
participate in a study and voluntarily shares private
information with a researcher.
• Right to Anonymity and Confidentiality:
Complete anonymity exists when the respondents’ identity
is not revealed and the information collected is not linked
to the respondent.
Confidentiality refers to the researcher’s responsibility to
protect all data gathered within the scope of the project
from being divulged or made available to any other
person, which means the research data should never be
shared with outsiders.
3. Principle of Beneficence
This principle involves an effort to secure the well
being of persons.
It is the right to protect respondents from
discomfort and harm. This principle states that
one should do what is good and above all should
do no harm.
Discomfort and harm can be physical, emotional,
spiritual, economic, social or legal.
 The Major Content of an Informed Consent
Informed consent revolves around the following three
major elements:
– The type of information you need to obtain from the research
subjects.
– The degree of understanding required of the subject in order to
give consent.
– The fact that the subject has a free choice in giving consent.
Informed consent should be based on the following factors:
– The purpose of the research study
– Foreseen risks
– A guarantee of anonymity and confidentiality
– Identification of the researcher
– Number of subjects involved
– Benefits and compensation.
 Access to Research Population
• Prior to commencing the study, a formal application to
the government of Kenya for permission to conduct the
research must be written.
• This should include two or more copies of the research
proposal, accompanied by a recommendation letter from
the supervisor(s) as required by the Kenyan authorities.
• If your institution is authorized to conduct research, there
may be a ‘Research and Ethics Committee’. Such a
committee is usually vested with the authority of granting
research permits, which you could use.
• As a requirement, each research respondent should be
requested to accept in writing and sign or affix a thumb
print.
• In cases where a respondent can neither read nor
write, a consent form should be completed and
duly signed after you have clearly explained the
purpose of the research.
• You should inform the respondents that their
participation is absolutely voluntary and they may
pull out of the study whenever they so wish.
• As part of the contract, you should guarantee the
respondents absolute confidentiality during and
after the study.
STEP 8: DATA COLLECTION AND PRESENTATION
Def: ‘the precise, systematic gathering of information
relevant to the research purpose or the specific
objectives, questions or hypotheses of a study’.
There are three main stages in the data collection
process:
• Stage One - Permission to Proceed(seeking
consent)
• Stage Two - Data Collection
• Listing tasks, training assistants, available data, time
• Stage Three - Data Handling
Aspects of data collection that ensure data quality
include;
– Guidelines on sampling procedures and what to do if
respondents are not available or refuse to cooperate.
– A clear explanation of the purpose and procedures of
the study. This should be used as an introduction before
each interview.
– Instruction sheets on how to ask certain questions and
how to record the answers.
members of the research team master techniques
such as:
– Asking questions in a neutral manner.
– Not showing, by words or expressions, what answers
one expects to hear.
 – Not showing agreement, disagreement or surprise.
– Recording answers precisely as they are provided,
without sifting through them or interpreting them.
Data Handling guidelines
– Check that the data gathered is complete and accurate.
– Identify the person responsible for storing data and the
place where it will be stored.
– Decide how data should be stored. Record forms should
be kept in the sequence in which they have been
numbered.
 DATA ENTRY
• Decide on a format, i.e, the way you will organize the
data in a file.
• Next, design a code, i.e, the rules by which the
respondents’ answers will be assigned values that can be
processed by the computer.
• Then do the actual coding, i.e, turn the responses into
the standard categories you developed in your coding
system.
• Data entry is the next step, which is keying the data into
the computer so that you can process it.
• Finally, data cleaning is the final check you make on the
data file for accuracy, completeness, and consistency
prior to the onset of analysis.
STEP 9: DATA ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION
Data Presentation: is the way in which data is displayed for
viewing, interpreting & understanding
methods of data presentation
– Tables
– Charts
– Graphs
– Frequency distribution tables
– Histograms
– Narrative method
Qualitative Data Presentation and Analysis
The data presentation and analysis of qualitative research is
quite different from that of presenting data collected when
This is because qualitative research uses words while
quantitative uses numbers (numerical).
However, the principles are the same for both types. In both
cases the researcher has to do the following:
a) Describe the sample population by providing a description
of the:
– Respondents, for instance, key informants or focus
group members.
– Age, sex, occupation, educational background etc.
b) Order, reduce and/or code the data (data processing).
c) Display the summaries of data for interpretation.
d) Draw conclusions.
e) Develop strategies for testing or confirming the findings to
prove their validity.
 Measures of Central Tendency
• Referred to as 'average' measures. They describe how
closely related the data is.
1. Mode: it is the numerical value or score that occurs most
times. It is the most suitable measure of central tendency
for nominal data.
2. Median: it is the score at the exact centre of a distribution;
it is also called the 50th percentile. It is the most central
value when raw data is arranged on a scale from the
highest to the lowest.
3. Mean: It is the total sum of scores divided by the number
of scores being summed. The mean is the most suitable
measure of central tendency for interval and ratio level
data.
 Measures of Dispersion

• Are used to measure the individual differences of scores

in a sample. They give an indication of how scores in a
sample are spread around the mean.
• Is the sample homogenous or heterogenous?
• If the individual scores are similar, the measure of
variability is small and the sample is relatively similar or
homogeneous in terms of those scores. A wide variation
in scores may indicate a heterogeneous sample.
1. Range: It is obtained by subtracting the lowest score
from the highest score. The range is the difference
between the highest and lowest score.
2. Variance: it is a measure of how individual scores in a set of
data vary in their distribution from one to the other.
3. Standard Deviation: It is calculated by finding the square root
of variance - that means you have to calculate the variance
first. Is an average of all deviations from the mean.
MEASUREMENT SCALES
1. Nominal scale: the lowest level of measurement. It groups
subjects or cases from the sample into categories. Variables
which can only be measured at the nominal scale include:
sex, race, marital status, color etc
2. Ordinal scale: it not only groups subjects into categories, but
it also ranks them into some order, this could be in an
increasing order. i.e., in an ordinal scale, numerals are used
to represent relative position or order among the values of
the variables. E.g.;happy, very happy…
3. Interval scale: The numerals are assigned to each measure
and ranked in an order and the intervals between the
numerals are equal.
Mathematical operations are limited to additions and
deductions; multiplication and division are not applicable.
An interval scale does not have a true zero point. The
minimum and maximum points o the scale are only
arbitrary
4. Ratio scale: is the highest level of measurement. It is the
most precise method of measuring variables. It has all the
characteristics of the other scales. The only additional
characteristic is that it has a true zero point and all the
mathematical operations can be applied to yield
meaningful values. Most physical objects can be measured
at the ratio scale. E.g. height, weight, distance, age, area,
 Qualitative Data Presentation and Analysis
1. Organizing the Data: involves putting all the information
in a simple format that can be understood. This is known
as ‘cleaning’ the data.
2. Creating Categories, Themes and Patterns: The researcher
needs to be very familiar with the data so as to establish
relationships among these categories. One use the
research questions or discussion topics.
3. Analyzing and Interpreting the Data: it involves evaluating
the data to determine its usefulness
and accuracy.
4. Writing the Report: Unlike the quantitative research
where the report writing is done after analyzing the data,
in qualitative research techniques, the writing and the
analysis go hand in hand.
 Quantitative Data Presentation and Analysis
1. Tabular Method
– Simple Table: usually a single line of characters
explaining a few columns of information.
– Compound Table: a single line of characters has been
described by two or more components of information.
2. Graphic Method
Graphs have two axes: vertical and horizontal.
Scores are usually presented along the horizontal axis, while
the frequency is placed along the vertical axis.
It is important to note that the intersection point between
the vertical and horizontal axes is usually represented by
a zero (0). There are three common graphic methods that
you may use for presenting data, i.e. Bar Charts,
histograms, frequency polygons
3. Charts Method: they include; pie charts. Pie charts are
relatively easy to interpret.
Each portion represents a variable.
STEP 10: COMMUNICATING THE RESEARCH FINDINGS

Ways of communicating the research findings

include:
1) Summarizing
2) Conclusion
3) Recommendations.
• SUMMARIZING
• While summarizing, identify the findings of
the study.
• Pinpoint whether the study objectives were
achieved or not.
• Ensure that your statements are brief, &
factual.
• CONCLUSIONS
• This section should be very brief.
• Clearly state how the study has contributed to
knowledge.
• Indicate what the study reaffirms.
• RECOMMENDATIONS.
• Exposes further problems & introduces more
questions.
• Make suggestions as to how your work can be
improved.
• Point whether these areas deserve more
investigations.
Study limitations Limitations may include:
1. Factors such as the inherent weakness in the sampling
method, faulty designs and controls, weaknesses in the
methods used to collect data and so on.
2. Time factor due to pressure of work.
3. Expenses involved if grant is not secured.
4. Possibility that some of the respondents may not
agree to participate in the study.
5. Diverse spread of the target population, which may
hinder easy access to respondents.
The researcher has the opportunity to recommend ways to
minimize or eliminate the limitations of the current study
or to offer alternative methodology or improvements of
the methods of the study presented.
 REFERENCES, CITATIONS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY
DESCRIPTION:
• A reference or citation is a description of any document
from which you have taken information, e.g. a complete
book, a chapter from it, a journal article, a newspaper
article, a web page, or DVD etc
• Harvard referencing style is the mostly used.
What is “Citing”?
“Citing” a reference is the act of recording it. It is made in two places:
1. a brief entry for each source in the text of your work, which then
leads your reader to …
2. your source, in full, at the end of your work, as an alphabetical
reference list.
As the list is in alphabetical order, it is easy to pick out the required
author's work.
 IMPORTANCE OF CITATION &
REFERENCING
• It is both a legal requirement and academic practice to
provide references to guide your reader to the sources you
have used
• To support the arguments you are making
• To demonstrate the breadth of your research,
• To credit the established work of others.
NOTE:
• Failure to acknowledge your sources is likely to lead to a
suspicion of plagiarism – i.e. trying to pass off someone
else's work as your own: it is a form of cheating.
• Incomplete or inaccurate referencing also reflects badly on
your work
 How it works
• There are 2 parts:
1. Author + Date in your text.
2. Full reference in the Reference List
• Whoever you cite in your text has to match your reference
list as the list is in alphabetical order, normally by author. It
must be in alphabetical order
• e.g. In your text: …Marieb and Hoehn (2007)… leads to the
reference list and finds: Marieb, E. N. and Hoehn, K. (2007)
Human anatomy and physiology. 7th International ed. San
Francisco: Benjamin Cummings.
 SECONDARY REFERENCING
• If you refer to a document which you DID NOT read, but
which was cited (referenced) by somebody else whose
work you DID read, you must make this clear. When you
compile your reference list you must only cite the work in
which you read it. Try to avoid this type of reference as you
cannot always check the original and are relying on
interpretation by others.
Examples:
• Dunn (1988), as cited by Campbell and Muncer (1998),
believed that …
or Dunn (1988) revealed that ….. (cited in Campbell and
Muncer, 1998, p.226)
NB: your reference list will include the full details of the
Campbell and Muncer work, but no mention of Dunn‟s.
How to Put References into the Text of
your Essay / Report
Author/s and Date
 For each reference you make in the text of your essay, you
need to provide:
• The authority: usually surname (family name) of the
author(s), maybe a corporate author
• The date it was published.
Example: (Nursing and Midwifery Council, 2008)
 If you include the author‟s name as part of the sentence
statement, only the date needs to be in brackets.
• Example: … Hartley (1999) declared that …
 If it is not part of your sentence, both the name and date
must be in brackets, separated by a comma.
• Example: … although other authors have denied this
(Hartley, 1999).
 The page number(s) must be added if a specific part needs
to be identified or a direct quote made.
• Example: …which is described there in detail (Hartley,
1999 p.172).
 If there are two authors:
• Example: In the much acclaimed work on the subject by
Martin and Frost (2001), it is clear …
• For three authors or more, it is usual to use the Latin et al
(meaning “and others”) after the name of the first author.
• Example: … Anderson et al (2003) concluded that …
Multiple references to the same author
• If you cite different documents by the same author which
were published in the same year, to distinguish between
them add the letters a, b, c, etc. in lower case after the
year. Repeat in the reference list.
• Example: … (Williamson, 2001a), (Williamson, 2001b) etc.
…
Quotations in the Text
• If you quote the exact words directly from a text you must
use quotation marks to indicate this.
• The author(s) and date must be stated, and if possible the
page number (or at least the chapter heading e.g. Chapter
6) from which the quote is taken.
NB: Page numbers for books are not included in the Reference
List
• Example: … Jackson (2004, p.575) declared that “This is
the finest example of postmodernism …”
• If page numbers are in separate sequences and therefore
duplicated e.g. different issues of a journal throughout the
year, or sections of a book, you must include the issue or
section number or name.
 Listing Your References at the End of
Your Work
NOTE: Your list should have both printed and electronic
sources in one single alphabetical sequence.
Order of referencing textbooks
• Surname of author(s), comma, initial(s), full stop
• Year of publication (in brackets)
• The title (in italics with only the first letter of first word
capitalized), colon between short and secondary/sub title,
full stop.
• The edition (if other than the first), full stop
• Place of publication (the first city or town) followed by a
colon
• Publisher’s name, full stop
Example:
• Macionis, J. J. and Plummer, J. (2008) Sociology: a global introduction.
4th ed. Harlow: Pearson, Prentice Hall.
• Webster, s. ( 1985). Educational Research: Competence for Analysis
and Applications, 6th Edition. New Jersey: Macmillan.

E-books (Electronic Books)

As above examples, except for certain additions. You need to include:
• Author (or editor) surname and initials
• Year (in brackets). Always use the publication date of the version
being used.
• Title of book (and any subtitle) - italics or underlined. Only initial
letter capitalized.
• Edition (other than the first)
• Place of publication (of printed original - if available) followed by a
colon(:)
• Publisher's name.
• Available from: (i.e. the e-book service you used), URL (web
address)
• (Date accessed).
Example:
• White, R. and Downs, T. E. (2005) How computers work, 8th
ed. Indianapolis: [Online]. Available from: Safari Tech Books
Online. http://0-proquest.safaribooksonline.com [Accessed:
16 August 2007].
 JOURNAL ARTICLES
 For journals, details are normally on the contents page and
usually at the top or bottom of every page of each article.
You need to include:
• Surname of the author(s), comma, initial(s), full stop
• Year of publication in brackets
• Title of the ARTICLE ( only first word with capitalized initial
letter, unless proper name), comma
• Title of the JOURNAL (in italics), comma
• Volume number, issue or part number (in brackets), comma
• First and last pages of the article separated by a hyphen
and indicated by the abbreviation “pp.”
 EXAMPLE
• Grundy,s., and Schibeci,R.A. (1987). Local theories, Journal
of Educational Research, 81(2), pp.91-95.
• Morrison, C. and Jutting, J. (2005) Women’s discrimination
in developing countries: a new data set for better policies,
World Development. July, 33 (7), pp. 1065-1081. [Online].
Available from: Science Direct. http://sciencedirect.com
[Accessed 31 July 2005].
Papers presented at a conference
Mugenda, O. (1999) Redefining and Actualizing the
Research Mission in African Universities. Paper
presented at the BOLESWA Educational Research
Symposium, Maseru, Lesotho, July, (1999).
Newspaper article:
Ngw’eno, H.B. (1993, September). Multiply and fill the
earth. The Weekly Review, pp 15 – 17.
 Introduction to Biostatistics
• What is statistics?
 Statistics is the summary of information (data) in a
meaningful fashion, and its appropriate
presentation.
• Bio-statistics is the segment of statistics that deals
with data arising from biological processes or
medical experiments
• Two broad branches in statistics
1. Descriptive statistics
Once data has been collected, normally the step that
follows is to summarize the data, if possible, with one or
two summary statistics. Summary or descriptive statistics
describe the original data set (the set of responses for
each question) by using just one or two numbers –
typically an average and a measure of dispersion.
2. Inferential Statistics
This is the branch of statistics that makes use of sample
data to make generalization concerning the population
parameters. Here theoretical distributions become
handy.
 Errors in statistical inference
• Type I error (or, error of the first kind) and
• Type II error (or, error of the second kind)
Are precise technical terms used in statistics to
describe particular flaws in a testing process,
where a true null hypothesis was incorrectly
rejected (Type I error) or where one fails to reject
a false null hypothesis (Type II error).
 TYPE 1 ERROR
• Occurs when the null hypothesis (H0) is true, but is
rejected. It is asserting something that is absent,
a false hit.
• A type I error may be compared with a so called
false positive (a result that indicates that a given
condition is present when it actually is not
present) in tests where a single condition is tested
for.
• A Type I error is committed when we fail to
believe a truth. In terms of folk tales, an
investigator may be "crying wolf" without a wolf
in sight (raising a false alarm) (H0: no wolf).
 TYPE 2 ERROR
• Occurs when the null hypothesis is false, but it is
erroneously accepted as true. It is missing to see
what is present, a miss.
• A type II error may be compared with a so-called
false negative (where an actual 'hit' was
disregarded by the test and seen as a 'miss') in a
test checking for a single condition with a definitive
result of true or false.
• A Type II error occurs when we believe a falsehood.
In terms of folk tales, an investigator may fail to see
the wolf ("failing to raise an alarm“).
RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY IN RESEARCH
Reliability
• Def: is the extent to which an experiment, test, or any
measuring procedure yields the same result on repeated
trials.
• Reliability is concerned with consistency, accuracy,
precision, stability, equivalence & homogeneity.
• Stability- produces the same results with repeated
testing.
• Homogeniety- all the items in a tool measure the same
characteristic.
• Equivalence- same results with parallel instruments.
Types of reliability are:
• Equivalency Reliability
• Stability Reliability
• Internal Consistency
• Interrater Reliability
Validity
• Validity refers to the degree to which a study accurately
reflects or assesses the specific concept that the
researcher is attempting to measure.
• While reliability is concerned with the accuracy of the
actual measuring instrument or procedure, validity is
concerned with the study's success at measuring what
the researchers set out to measure.
• Validity is both external and internal.
• External validity refers to the extent to which the
results of a study are generalizable or transferable.
• Internal validity refers to
– (1) the rigor with which the study was conducted (e.g.,
the study's design, the care taken to conduct
measurements, and decisions concerning what was and
wasn't measured) and
– (2) the extent to which the designers of a study have
taken into account alternative explanations for any
causal relationships they explore
• CONTENT VALIDITY
• Is the adequacy of the sampling of the domain
being studied.
• CRITERION VALIDITY
• Represents the relationship between one
measure & another measure of the same
phenomena.e.g. subject performance on
measurement tool & the subjects actual
behavoiur.
• PREDICTIVE VALIDITY
• Is the degree of correlation between the
measure of the concept & some future
measure of the same concept.