Getting to Know Your Data

1
 Getting to Know Your Data

 Data Objects and Attribute Types

 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

 Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

2
 MODULE 5

Types of data in cluster analysis

3
 Types of Data Sets
 Record
 Relational records
 Data matrix, e.g., numerical matrix,

timeout

season
coach

game
score
team

ball

lost
pla
crosstabs

wi
n
y
 Document data: text documents: term-
frequency vector
Document 1 3 0 5 0 2 6 0 2 0 2
 Transaction data
 Graph and network Document 2 0 7 0 2 1 0 0 3 0 0
 World Wide Web
Document 3 0 1 0 0 1 2 2 0 3 0
 Social or information networks
 Molecular Structures
 Ordered TID Items
 Video data: sequence of images
1 Bread, Coke, Milk
 Temporal data: time-series
 Sequential Data: transaction sequences 2 Beer, Bread
 Genetic sequence data 3 Beer, Coke, Diaper, Milk
 Spatial, image and multimedia: 4 Beer, Bread, Diaper, Milk
 Spatial data: maps 5 Coke, Diaper, Milk
 Image data:
 Video data:

4
 Data Objects

 Data sets are made up of data objects.

 A data object represents an entity.
 Examples:
 sales database: customers, store items, sales
 medical database: patients, treatments
 university database: students, professors, courses
 Also called samples , examples, instances, data points,
objects, tuples.
 Data objects are described by attributes.
 Database rows -> data objects; columns ->attributes.

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 Attributes
 Attribute (or dimensions (data warehousing), features
(machine learning), variables(statisticians)): a data field,

representing a characteristic or feature of a data

object.
 E.g., customer _ID, name, address
 Types:
 Nominal

 Binary

 Numeric: quantitative

 Interval-scaled

 Ratio-scaled

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 Attribute Types
 Nominal: categories, states, or “names of things”
 Hair_color = {auburn, black, blond, brown, grey, red, white}
 marital status, occupation, ID numbers, zip codes
 No meaning full order and are not quantitative
 Mathematical operation on values of nominal attributes are not meaning ful
 Binary
 Nominal attribute with only 2 states (0 and 1)
 Symmetric binary: both outcomes equally important
 e.g., gender
 Asymmetric binary: outcomes not equally important.
 e.g., medical test (positive vs. negative)
 Convention: assign 1 to most important outcome (e.g., HIV
positive)

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 Attribute Types
 Ordinal
 Values have a meaningful order (ranking) but magnitude between
successive values is not known.
 Size = {small, medium, large}, grades, army rankings
 Central tendency can be represented by – mode and median
 But ‘mean’ cannot be defined

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 Numeric Attribute Types
 Numeric
 Quantitative - it is measurable quantity represented in

integer or real-values
 Can be interval –scaled or ratio scaled

 Interval
 Continous measurements of a rougly linear scale
 Measured on a scale of equal-sized units
 Allow us to compare and quantify the difference
between values
 Values have order
 E.g., temperature in C˚or F˚, calendar dates
 No true zero-point
 Neither 0 degree Celcius/Fahrenheit indicates no
temperature
 Ratios are not valid 9
 Numeric Attribute Types
 Ratio
 Inherent zero-point
 Values are ordered, being multiple (ratio), Can compute
difference, mean, mode, median,
 We can speak of values as being an order of magnitude
larger than the unit of measurement (10 K˚ is twice as
high as 5 K˚, since 0 K˚ = -273.15˚C ).
 e.g., temperature in Kelvin, length, counts,
monetary quantities

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 Discrete vs. Continuous Attributes
 Discrete Attribute
 Has only a finite or countably infinite set of values

 E.g., zip codes, profession, or the set of words in a

collection of documents
 Sometimes, represented as integer variables

 Note: Binary attributes are a special case of discrete

attributes
 Continuous Attribute
 Has real numbers as attribute values

 E.g., temperature, height, or weight

 Practically, real values can only be measured and

represented using a finite number of digits

 Continuous attributes are typically represented as

floating-point variables
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 Getting to Know Your Data

 Data Objects and Attribute Types

 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data

 Data Visualization

 Measuring Data Similarity and Dissimilarity

 Summary

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 Similarity and Dissimilarity
 Similarity
 Numerical measure of how alike two data objects are
 Value is higher when objects are more alike
 Often falls in the range [0,1]
 Dissimilarity (e.g., distance)
 Numerical measure of how different two data objects
are
 Lower when objects are more alike
 Minimum dissimilarity is often 0
 Proximity refers to a similarity or dissimilarity

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 Data Matrix and Dissimilarity Matrix
 Data structures
1. Data matrix  x11 ... x1f ... x1p 
 
 Stores the n data  ... ... ... ... ... 
objects with p x ... xif ... xip 
 i1 
attributes in the form  ... ... ... ... ... 
of a relational table x ... xnf ... xnp 
 n1 
 It is n by p matrix

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 Data Matrix and Dissimilarity Matrix
 Data structures  0 
2. Dissimilarity matrix  d(2,1) 0 
 
 This structure shows  d(3,1) d ( 3,2) 0 
collection of proximities  
 : : : 
that are available for all d ( n,1) d ( n,2) ... ... 0
pair of n objects.
 d(i, j) – difference

between object i and j

 D(i,j) = 0, objects are

same

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 Proximity Measure for Nominal Attributes

 Let the number of states of a nominal attribute be

M.
 Simple matching
 m: # of matches (number of attributes for
which i and j are in same state),
 p: total # of attributes
d (i, j)  p 
p
m

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 Dissimilarity- Nominal data
Obj. ID test-1 test-2
101 A X
102 B X
103 A Y
104 C Z

Calculate
 0 
 d(2,1)   0 
 0  1 / 2 0 
 d(3,1) d ( 3,2) 0   
  1 / 2 1 0 
 : : :   
d ( n,1) d ( n,2) ... ... 0  1 1 1 
 

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 Proximity Measure for Binary Attributes
Object j
 A contingency table for binary data
Object i
where q – # of attributes == 1 for both objects
t - # attributes == 0 for both objects
s - # attributes == 0 object i and == 1 object j
r - # attributes == 1 object i and == 0 object j

 Symmetric binary dissimilarity

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 Proximity Measure for Binary Attributes

 Asymmetric binary dissimilarity

 Asymmetric binary similarity

q
between object I and j qr  s
Sim(i, j) = q
qr  s

 Jaccard coefficient (similarity

measure for asymmetric binary
variables):

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 Proximity Measure for Nominal Attributes

 Let the number of states of a nominal attribute be

M.
 Simple matching
 m: # of matches (number of attributes for
which i and j are in same state),
 p: total # of attributes
d (i, j)  p 
p
m

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 Dissimilarity- Nominal data
Obj. ID test-1 test-2
101 A X
102 B X
103 A Y
104 C Z

Calculate
 0 
 d(2,1)   0 
 0  1 / 2 0 
 d(3,1) d ( 3,2) 0   
  1 / 2 1 0 
 : : :   
d ( n,1) d ( n,2) ... ... 0  1 1 1 
 

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 Proximity Measure for Binary Attributes
Object j
 A contingency table for binary data
Object i
where q – # of attributes == 1 for both objects
t - # attributes == 0 for both objects
s - # attributes == 0 object i and == 1 object j
r - # attributes == 1 object i and == 0 object j

 Symmetric binary dissimilarity

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 Proximity Measure for Binary Attributes

 Asymmetric binary dissimilarity

 Asymmetric binary similarity

q
between object I and j qr  s
Sim(i, j) = q
qr  s

 Jaccard coefficient (similarity

measure for asymmetric binary
variables):

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 Dissimilarity between Binary Variables
 Example
Name Gender Fever Cough Test-1 Test-2 Test-3 Test-4
Jack M Y N P N N N
Mary F Y N P N P N
Jim M Y P N N N N
 Gender is a symmetric attribute
 The remaining attributes are asymmetric binary
 Let the values Y and P be 1, and the value N 0
01
d ( jack , mary )   0.33
2 01
11
d ( jack , jim )   0.67
111
1 2
d ( jim , mary )   0.75
11 2
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 Dissimilarity on Numeric Data: Minkowski
Distance
 Minkowski distance: A popular distance measure

where i = (xi1, xi2, …, xip) and j = (xj1, xj2, …, xjp) are two
p-dimensional data objects, and h is the order (the
distance so defined is also called L-h norm)
 Properties
 d(i, j) > 0 if i ≠ j, and d(i, i) = 0 (Positive definiteness)
 d(i, j) = d(j, i) (Symmetry)
 d(i, j)  d(i, k) + d(k, j) (Triangle Inequality)
 A distance that satisfies these properties is a metric
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 Special Cases of Minkowski Distance
 h = 1: Manhattan (city block, L1 norm) distance
 E.g., the Hamming distance: the number of bits that are different
between two binary vectors
d (i, j) | x  x |  | x  x | ... | x  x |
i1 j1 i2 j 2 ip jp

 h = 2: (L2 norm) Euclidean distance

d (i, j)  (| x  x |2  | x  x |2 ... | x  x |2 )
i1 j1 i2 j 2 ip jp

 h  . “supremum” (Lmax norm, L norm) distance.

 This is the maximum difference between any component (attribute)
of the vectors

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 Example: Minkowski Distance
Dissimilarity Matrices
point attribute 1 attribute 2 Manhattan (L1)
x1 1 2
L x1 x2 x3 x4
x2 3 5 x1 0
x3 2 0 x2 5 0
x4 4 5 x3 3 6 0
x4 6 1 7 0
Euclidean (L2)
x2 x4
L2 x1 x2 x3 x4
4 x1 0
x2 3.61 0
x3 2.24 5.1 0
x4 4.24 1 5.39 0

2 x1
Supremum
L x1 x2 x3 x4
x1 0
x2 3 0
x3 x3 2 5 0
0 2 4 x4 3 1 5 0
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 Ordinal Variables

 An ordinal variable can be discrete or continuous

 Order is important, e.g., rank
 Can be treated like interval-scaled
 replace x by their rank
if
rif {1,..., M f }
 map the range of each variable onto [0, 1] by replacing
i-th object in the f-th variable by
rif 1
zif 
M f 1
 compute the dissimilarity using methods for interval-
scaled variables (xif-mean)/sd

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 Attributes of Mixed Type
 A database may contain all attribute types
 Nominal, symmetric binary, asymmetric binary, numeric,

ordinal
 One may use a weighted formula to combine their effects
 pf  1 ij( f ) dij( f )
d (i, j) 
 pf  1 ij( f )
 δij =0, if either 1) xif or xjf is missing 2) xif =xjf and attribute is asymmetric
binary, otherwise δij =1
 f is binary or nominal:
dij(f) = 0 if xif = xjf , or dij(f) = 1 otherwise
 f is numeric: use the normalized distance
 f is ordinal
z 
rif  1

Compute ranks rif and if M f 1

Treat zif as interval-scaled
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 Cosine Similarity
 A document can be represented by thousands of attributes, each
recording the frequency of a particular word (such as keywords) or
phrase in the document.

 Other vector objects: gene features in micro-arrays, …

 Applications: information retrieval, biologic taxonomy, gene feature
mapping, ...
 Cosine measure: If d1 and d2 are two vectors (e.g., term-frequency
vectors), then
cos(d1, d2) = (d1  d2) /||d1|| ||d2|| ,
where  indicates vector dot product, ||d||: the length of vector d

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 Example: Cosine Similarity
 cos(d1, d2) = (d1  d2) /||d1|| ||d2|| ,
where  indicates vector dot product, ||d|: the length of vector d

 Ex: Find the similarity between documents 1 and 2.

d1 = (5, 0, 3, 0, 2, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0)
d2 = (3, 0, 2, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1)

d1d2 = 5*3+0*0+3*2+0*0+2*1+0*1+0*1+2*1+0*0+0*1 = 25
||d1||= (5*5+0*0+3*3+0*0+2*2+0*0+0*0+2*2+0*0+0*0)0.5=(42)0.5
= 6.481
||d2||= (3*3+0*0+2*2+0*0+1*1+1*1+0*0+1*1+0*0+1*1)0.5=(17)0.5
= 4.12
cos(d1, d2 ) = 0.94

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 Basic Statistical Descriptions of Data
 Motivation
 To better understand the data: central tendency,
variation and spread
 Central tendency
 Location of middle or center of dispersion
 Dispersion
 How data are spread about
 Range, quartiles, interquartile range, five-number summary.

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 Measuring the Central Tendency
 Mean (algebraic measure) (sample vs. population): 1 n
x   xi   x
Note: n is sample size and N is population size. n i 1 N
n
Weighted arithmetic mean:
w x

i i
 Trimmed mean: chopping extreme values x i 1
n
 Median: w
i 1
i
 Middle value if odd number of values, or average of the
middle two values otherwise
 Estimated by interpolation (for grouped data):
n / 2  ( freq ) l Median
median  L1  ( ) width interval

freq median
 L1 –lower boundary of median interval
 n – the number of values in entire data set
 ∑freq – sum of freq of all intervals lower than median interval
 Freqmedian – frequency of median interval
 Width- width of median interval
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 Measuring the Central Tendency
 Mode
 Value that occurs most frequently in the data
 Unimodal, bimodal, trimodal
 Empirical formula:
mean  mode  3  (mean  median)

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Symmetric vs. Skewed
Data
 Median, mean and mode of symmetric

symmetric, positively and negatively

skewed data

positively skewed negatively skewed

June 18, 2024 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 35

 Measuring the Dispersion of Data
 Variance and standard deviation (sample: s, population: σ)
 Variance: (algebraic, scalable computation)

n n
1 1
    x  2
2
2
( xi  2
)  i
N i 1 N i 1

 Standard deviation s (or σ) is the square root of variance s2 (or σ2)

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 Measuring the Dispersion of Data
 Quartiles, outliers and boxplots
 Quartiles: sorted, splits into equal size, consecutive set
 Q1 (25th percentile), Q3 (75th percentile)

 Inter-quartile range: IQR = Q3 – Q1

 Five number summary: fuller summary of shape of distribution
 min, Q1, median, Q3, max
 Boxplot: ends of the box are the quartiles; median is marked; add
whiskers (lines outside the box), and plot outliers individually
 Outlier: usually, a value higher/lower than 1.5 x IQR

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 Boxplot Analysis

 Five-number summary of a distribution

 Minimum, Q1, Median, Q3, Maximum
 Boxplot
 Data is represented with a box
 The ends of the box are at the first and third
quartiles, i.e., the height of the box is IQR
 The median is marked by a line within the box
 Whiskers: two lines outside the box extended
to Minimum and Maximum
 Outliers: points beyond a specified outlier
threshold, plotted individually

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 Visualization of Data Dispersion: 3-D Boxplots

June 18, 2024 Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 39

 Properties of Normal Distribution Curve

 The normal (distribution) curve

 From μ–σ to μ+σ: contains about 68% of the measurements

(μ: mean, σ: standard deviation)

 From μ–2σ to μ+2σ: contains about 95% of it

 From μ–3σ to μ+3σ: contains about 99.7% of it

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Graphic Displays of Basic Statistical Descriptions

 Boxplot: graphic display of five-number summary

 Histogram: x-axis are values, y-axis repres. frequencies
 Quantile plot: each value xi is paired with fi indicating
that approximately 100 fi % of data are  xi
 Quantile-quantile (q-q) plot: graphs the quantiles of
one univariant distribution against the corresponding
quantiles of another
 Scatter plot: each pair of values is a pair of coordinates
and plotted as points in the plane
41
 Histogram Analysis
 Histogram: Graph display of tabulated
40
frequencies, shown as bars
35
 It shows what proportion of cases fall
into each of several categories 30
 Differs from a bar chart in that it is the25
area of the bar that denotes the 20
value, not the height as in bar charts, 15
a crucial distinction when the 10
categories are not of uniform width
5
 The categories are usually specified as
0
non-overlapping intervals of some 10000 30000 50000 70000 90000

variable. The categories (bars) must

be adjacent
42
Histograms Often Tell More than Boxplots

 The two histograms

shown in the left may
have the same boxplot
representation
 The same values for:
min, Q1, median, Q3,
max
 But they have rather
different data
distributions

43
 Quantile Plot
 Displays all of the data (allowing the user to assess both
the overall behavior and unusual occurrences)
 Plots quantile information
 For a data x data sorted in increasing order, f indicates
i i
that approximately 100 fi% of the data are below or
equal to the value xi

Data Mining: Concepts and Techniques 44

 Quantile-Quantile (Q-Q) Plot
 Graphs the quantiles of one univariate distribution against the
corresponding quantiles of another
 View: Is there is a shift in going from one distribution to
another?
 Example shows unit price of items sold at Branch 1 vs. Branch
2 for each quantile. Unit prices of items sold at Branch 1 tend
to be lower than those at Branch 2.

45
 Scatter plot
 Provides a first look at bivariate data to see clusters of
points, outliers, etc
 Each pair of values is treated as a pair of coordinates and
plotted as points in the plane

46
Positively and Negatively Correlated Data

 The left half fragment is positively

correlated
 The right half is negative correlated

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Uncorrelated Data

48
 Similarity and Dissimilarity
 Similarity
 Numerical measure of how alike two data objects are
 Value is higher when objects are more alike
 Often falls in the range [0,1]
 Dissimilarity (e.g., distance)
 Numerical measure of how different two data objects
are
 Lower when objects are more alike
 Minimum dissimilarity is often 0
 Proximity refers to a similarity or dissimilarity

49
 Data Matrix and Dissimilarity Matrix
 Data structures
1. Data matrix  x11 ... x1f ... x1p 
 
 Stores the n data  ... ... ... ... ... 
objects with p x ... xif ... xip 
 i1 
attributes in the form  ... ... ... ... ... 
of a relational table x ... xnf ... xnp 
 n1 
 It is n by p matrix

50
 Data Matrix and Dissimilarity Matrix
 Data structures  0 
2. Dissimilarity matrix  d(2,1) 0 
 
 This structure shows  d(3,1) d ( 3,2) 0 
collection of proximities  
 : : : 
that are available for all d ( n,1) d ( n,2) ... ... 0
pair of n objects.
 d(i, j) – difference

between object i and j

 D(i,j) = 0, objects are

same

51
 Proximity Measure for Nominal Attributes

 Let the number of states of a nominal attribute be

M.
 Simple matching
 m: # of matches (number of attributes for
which i and j are in same state),
 p: total # of attributes
d (i, j)  p 
p
m

52
 Dissimilarity- Nominal data
Obj. ID test-1 test-2
101 A X
102 B X
103 A Y
104 C Z

Calculate
 0 
 d(2,1)   0 
 0  1 / 2 0 
 d(3,1) d ( 3,2) 0   
  1 / 2 1 0 
 : : :   
d ( n,1) d ( n,2) ... ... 0  1 1 1 
 

53
 Proximity Measure for Binary Attributes
Object j
 A contingency table for binary data
Object i
where q – # of attributes == 1 for both objects
t - # attributes == 0 for both objects
s - # attributes == 0 object i and == 1 object j
r - # attributes == 1 object i and == 0 object j

 Symmetric binary dissimilarity

54
 Proximity Measure for Binary Attributes

 Asymmetric binary dissimilarity

 Asymmetric binary similarity

q
between object I and j qr  s
Sim(i, j) = q
qr  s

 Jaccard coefficient (similarity

measure for asymmetric binary
variables):

55
 Proximity Measure for Nominal Attributes

 Let the number of states of a nominal attribute be

M.
 Simple matching
 m: # of matches (number of attributes for
which i and j are in same state),
 p: total # of attributes
d (i, j)  p 
p
m

56
 Dissimilarity- Nominal data
Obj. ID test-1 test-2
101 A X
102 B X
103 A Y
104 C Z

Calculate
 0 
 d(2,1)   0 
 0  1 / 2 0 
 d(3,1) d ( 3,2) 0   
  1 / 2 1 0 
 : : :   
d ( n,1) d ( n,2) ... ... 0  1 1 1 
 

57
 Proximity Measure for Binary Attributes
Object j
 A contingency table for binary data
Object i
where q – # of attributes == 1 for both objects
t - # attributes == 0 for both objects
s - # attributes == 0 object i and == 1 object j
r - # attributes == 1 object i and == 0 object j

 Symmetric binary dissimilarity

58
 Proximity Measure for Binary Attributes

 Asymmetric binary dissimilarity

 Asymmetric binary similarity

q
between object I and j qr  s
Sim(i, j) = q
qr  s

 Jaccard coefficient (similarity

measure for asymmetric binary
variables):

59
 Dissimilarity between Binary Variables
 Example
Name Gender Fever Cough Test-1 Test-2 Test-3 Test-4
Jack M Y N P N N N
Mary F Y N P N P N
Jim M Y P N N N N
 Gender is a symmetric attribute
 The remaining attributes are asymmetric binary
 Let the values Y and P be 1, and the value N 0
01
d ( jack , mary )   0.33
2 01
11
d ( jack , jim )   0.67
111
1 2
d ( jim , mary )   0.75
11 2
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 Dissimilarity on Numeric Data: Minkowski
Distance
 Minkowski distance: A popular distance measure

where i = (xi1, xi2, …, xip) and j = (xj1, xj2, …, xjp) are two
p-dimensional data objects, and h is the order (the
distance so defined is also called L-h norm)
 Properties
 d(i, j) > 0 if i ≠ j, and d(i, i) = 0 (Positive definiteness)
 d(i, j) = d(j, i) (Symmetry)
 d(i, j)  d(i, k) + d(k, j) (Triangle Inequality)
 A distance that satisfies these properties is a metric
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 Special Cases of Minkowski Distance
 h = 1: Manhattan (city block, L1 norm) distance
 E.g., the Hamming distance: the number of bits that are different
between two binary vectors
d (i, j) | x  x |  | x  x | ... | x  x |
i1 j1 i2 j 2 ip jp

 h = 2: (L2 norm) Euclidean distance

d (i, j)  (| x  x |2  | x  x |2 ... | x  x |2 )
i1 j1 i2 j 2 ip jp

 h  . “supremum” (Lmax norm, L norm) distance.

 This is the maximum difference between any component (attribute)
of the vectors

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 Example: Minkowski Distance
Dissimilarity Matrices
point attribute 1 attribute 2 Manhattan (L1)
x1 1 2
L x1 x2 x3 x4
x2 3 5 x1 0
x3 2 0 x2 5 0
x4 4 5 x3 3 6 0
x4 6 1 7 0
Euclidean (L2)
x2 x4
L2 x1 x2 x3 x4
4 x1 0
x2 3.61 0
x3 2.24 5.1 0
x4 4.24 1 5.39 0

2 x1
Supremum
L x1 x2 x3 x4
x1 0
x2 3 0
x3 x3 2 5 0
0 2 4 x4 3 1 5 0
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 Ordinal Variables

 An ordinal variable can be discrete or continuous

 Order is important, e.g., rank
 Can be treated like interval-scaled
 replace x by their rank
if
rif {1,..., M f }
 map the range of each variable onto [0, 1] by replacing
i-th object in the f-th variable by
rif 1
zif 
M f 1
 compute the dissimilarity using methods for interval-
scaled variables

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 Attributes of Mixed Type
 A database may contain all attribute types
 Nominal, symmetric binary, asymmetric binary, numeric,

ordinal
 One may use a weighted formula to combine their effects
 pf  1 ij( f ) dij( f )
d (i, j) 
 pf  1 ij( f )
 δij =0, if either 1) xif or xjf is missing 2) xif =xjf and attribute is asymmetric
binary, otherwise δij =1
 f is binary or nominal:
dij(f) = 0 if xif = xjf , or dij(f) = 1 otherwise
 f is numeric: use the normalized distance
 f is ordinal
z 
rif  1

Compute ranks rif and if M f 1

Treat zif as interval-scaled
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 Cosine Similarity
 A document can be represented by thousands of attributes, each
recording the frequency of a particular word (such as keywords) or
phrase in the document.

 Other vector objects: gene features in micro-arrays, …

 Applications: information retrieval, biologic taxonomy, gene feature
mapping, ...
 Cosine measure: If d1 and d2 are two vectors (e.g., term-frequency
vectors), then
cos(d1, d2) = (d1  d2) /||d1|| ||d2|| ,
where  indicates vector dot product, ||d||: the length of vector d

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 Example: Cosine Similarity
 cos(d1, d2) = (d1  d2) /||d1|| ||d2|| ,
where  indicates vector dot product, ||d|: the length of vector d

 Ex: Find the similarity between documents 1 and 2.

d1 = (5, 0, 3, 0, 2, 0, 0, 2, 0, 0)
d2 = (3, 0, 2, 0, 1, 1, 0, 1, 0, 1)

d1d2 = 5*3+0*0+3*2+0*0+2*1+0*1+0*1+2*1+0*0+0*1 = 25
||d1||= (5*5+0*0+3*3+0*0+2*2+0*0+0*0+2*2+0*0+0*0)0.5=(42)0.5
= 6.481
||d2||= (3*3+0*0+2*2+0*0+1*1+1*1+0*0+1*1+0*0+1*1)0.5=(17)0.5
= 4.12
cos(d1, d2 ) = 0.94

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