LECTURE 6

SUBPROGRAMS

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 Topics
• Fundamental characteristics of subprograms
• Parameters
• Functions and procedures
• Implementation method of parameter passing
• Type checking parameters
• Design consideration of parameter passing
• Overloaded subprogram
• Generic subprogram

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 Fundamental Characteristics of Subprograms

• A subprogram has a single entry point. The caller is

suspended during the execution of the called
subprogram
• Control always returns to the caller when the called
subprogram’s execution terminates

Concepts of Programming Languages - NUN 2024 Austin Olom Ogar

 Basic definitions:

• A subprogram definition is a description of the

actions of the subprogram abstraction
• A subprogram call is an explicit request that the
subprogram be executed
• A subprogram header is the first line of the
definition, including the name, the kind of
subprogram, and the formal parameters
• The parameter profile of a subprogram is the
number, order, and types of its parameters
• The protocol of a subprogram is its parameter profile
plus, if it is a function, its return type

Concepts of Programming Languages - NUN 2024 Austin Olom Ogar

 Example of a subprogram header
• Consider the following header examples:
def adder (parameters):
• This is the header of a Python subprogram
named adder. Ruby subprogram headers also
begin with def. The header of a JavaScript
subprogram begins with function.
• In C, the header of a function named adder
might be as follows:
void adder (parameters)
• The reserved word void in this header indicates
that the subprogram does not return a value
Concepts of Programming Languages - NUN 2024 Austin Olom Ogar
 Subprogram body

• The body of subprograms defines its actions. In the

C-based languages (and some others—for example,
JavaScript) the body of a subprogram is delimited by
braces. In Ruby, an end statement terminates the
body of a subprogram.
• As with compound statements, the statements in the
body of a Python function must be indented and the
end of the body is indicated by the first statement
that is not indented.

Concepts of Programming Languages - NUN 2024 Austin Olom Ogar

 Basic definitions:

• A subprogram declaration provides the protocol, but

not the body, of the subprogram

Concepts of Programming Languages - NUN 2024 Austin Olom Ogar

 Parameter
• A formal parameter is a dummy variable listed in the subprogram
header and used in the subprogram used in the subprogram call
statement
• Actual/Formal Parameter Correspondence:
1. Positional
2. Keyword
e.g. SORT(LIST => A, LENGTH => N);
• Advantage: order is irrelevant
• Disadvantage: user must know the formal parameter’s names

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 Functions and Procedures
• Procedures provide user-defined statements
• Functions provide user-defined operators
• Design Issues for Subprograms
• What parameter passing methods are provided?
• Are parameter types checked?
• Are local variables static or dynamic?
• What is the referencing environment of a passed subprogram?
• Are parameter types in passed subprograms checked?
• Can subprogram definitions be nested?
• Can subprograms be overloaded?
• Are subprograms allowed to be generic?
• Is separate or independent compilation supported?

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 Local referencing environments
• If local variables are stack-dynamic:
• Advantages:
• Support for recursion
• Storage for locals is shared among some subprograms
• Disadvantages:
• Allocation/deallocation time
• Indirect addressing
• Subprograms cannot be history sensitive
• Static locals are the opposite
• Language Examples:
1. C - both (variables declared to be static are)
(default is stack dynamic)
2. Pascal, Modula-2, and Ada - dynamic only

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 Parameters and Parameter Passing

• Semantic Model: in mode, out mode, InOut mode

• Conceptual Models of Transfer:
1. Physically move a value
2. Move an access path

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 Implementation Models:
1. Pass-by-value (in mode)
• Either by physical move or access path
• Disadvantages of access path method:
• Must write-protect in the called subprogram
• Accesses cost more (indirect addressing)
• Disadvantages of physical move:
• Requires more storage
• Cost of the moves

Concepts of Programming Languages - NUN 2024 Austin Olom Ogar

 Implementation Models:
2. Pass-by-result (out mode)
• Local’s value is passed back to the caller
• Physical move is usually used
• Disadvantages:
• If value is passed, time and space
• In both cases, order dependence may be a problem
• e.g.
procedure sub1(y: int, z: int);
...
sub1(x, x);
• Value of x in the caller depends on order of assignments at the return

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 Implementation Models:
3. Pass-by-value-result (inout mode)
• Physical move, both ways
• Also called pass-by-copy
• Disadvantages:
• Those of pass-by-result
• Those of pass-by-value

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 Implementation Models:
4. Pass-by-reference (inout mode)
- Pass an access path
- Also called pass-by-sharing
- Advantage: passing process is efficient
- Disadvantages:
a. Slower accesses
b. Can allow aliasing:
Actual parameter collisions:
e.g.
procedure sub1(a: int, b: int);
...
sub1(x, x);

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 Implementation Models:
5. Pass-by-name (multiple mode)
• By textual substitution
• Formals are bound to an access method at the time of the call, but actual
binding to a value or address takes place at the time of a reference or
assignment
• Purpose: flexibility of late binding
• Resulting semantics:
• If actual is a scalar variable, it is pass-by-reference
• If actual is a constant expression, it is pass-by-value

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 Implementation Models:
• Disadvantages of pass by name:
• Very inefficient references
• Too tricky; hard to read and understand
• Language Examples:
1. FORTRAN
• Before 77, pass-by-reference
• 77 - scalar variables are often passed by value-result
2. ALGOL 60
• Pass-by-name is default; pass-by-value is optional
3. ALGOL W - Pass-by-value-result

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 Implementation Models: Language examples
4. C - Pass-by-value
5. Pascal and Modula-2
- Default is pass-by-value; pass-by-reference is optional
6. C++
- Like C, but also allows reference type actual
parameters.
7. Java - Like C, except references instead of pointers

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 Type checking parameters

• Now considered very important for reliability

• FORTRAN 77 and original C: none
• Pascal, Modula-2, FORTRAN 90, Java, and Ada: it is always required
• C++: choice is made by the user

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 Implementing Parameter Passing

• ALGOL 60 and most of its descendants use the run-time stack

• Value - copy it to the stack; references are indirect to the stack
• Result – same as value
• Reference - regardless of form, put the address in the stack
• Name - run-time resident code segments or subprograms evaluate the address of the
parameter; called for each reference to the formal; these are called thunks
• Very expensive, compared to reference or value-result

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Design Considerations for parameter passing

1. Efficiency
2. One-way or two-way
• These two are in conflict with one another!
• Good programming => limited access to variables, which means one-way
whenever possible
• Efficiency => pass by reference is fastest way to pass structures of significant
size
• Also, functions should not allow reference parameters

Concept of Programming Languages

 Overloaded subprogram
• An overloaded subprogram is one that has the same name as another
subprogram in the same referencing environment.

• C++ and Ada have overloaded subprograms built-in, and users can
write their own overloaded subprograms

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 Generic Subprograms

• A generic or polymorphic subprogram is one that takes parameters of

different types on different activations
• Overloaded subprograms provide ad hoc polymorphism

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 Independent/Separate compilation

• Independent compilation is compilation of some of the units of a program

separately from the rest of the program, without the benefit of interface
information
• Separate compilation is compilation of some of the units of a program separately
from the rest of the program, using interface information to check the
correctness of the interface between the two parts.
• Language Examples:
• FORTRAN II to FORTRAN 77 - independent
• FORTRAN 90, Ada, Modula-2, C++ - separate
• Pascal - allows neither

Concepts of Programming Languages - NUN 2024 Austin Olom Ogar

 Functions

• Design Issues:
1. Are side effects allowed?
2. What types of return values are allowed?

Concepts of Programming Languages - NUN 2024 Austin Olom Ogar

 Functions

• Design Issues:
1. Are side effects allowed?
a. Two-way parameters (Ada does not allow)
b. Nonlocal reference (all allow)
2. What types of return values are allowed?
3. How many values can be returned?

Concepts of Programming Languages - NUN 2024 Austin Olom Ogar

 Functions (continued)

• Language Examples (for possible return types):

1. FORTRAN, Pascal, Modula-2 - only simple types
2. C - any type except functions and arrays
3. C++ and Java - like C, but also allow classes to
be returned

Concepts of Programming Languages - NUN 2024 Austin Olom Ogar

 Accessing Nonlocal Environments

• The nonlocal variables of a subprogram are those that are visible but not declared
in the subprogram
• Global variables are those that may be visible in all of the subprograms of a
program

Concepts of Programming Languages - NUN 2024 Austin Olom Ogar

 Questions?

Concepts of Programming Languages - NUN 2024 Austin Olom Ogar