Control and Coordination

Control and
Coordination
Control Respon
se
Stim
Coordin ulus Recept
ation ors
Human control-
the nervous
system
• The building block of
the nervous system is
the NEURON
The
structure
• The cell body consists of a nucleus and granular
cytoplasm called Nissl’s granules. (kind of like
ribosomes)
• Dendrites are several branched, finger-like projections
that transmit nerve impulse towards the cell body.
• The axon arises from the cell body which is branched
at the distal end. The cells of the axon are called
Schwann cells which are covered by a myelin sheath.
The space between the myelin sheath is known as
Nodes of Ranvier. The end of the axon contains bulb-
like structures called the Synaptic Knob.
How do
neurons
communicate
with each
other
Nerve
structure
How is it different in myelinated vs unmyelinated
Parts of the nervous system
Forebrain
• Thinking part of the brain
• Control of voluntary actions: language, speech (dominant, non
dominant)
• Sensory
• Hunger, temperature control
• Personality
• Memory
• Intelligence
Midbrain
• Controls movement of eyeball, pupil
• Reflex movement of head, neck and trunk
Hindbrain
• Cerebellum: Balance, posture, fine movements, coordination
• Medulla: Blood pressure, salivation, vomiting (involuntary controls)
• Pons: Regulation of respiration
Spinal Cord
• The spinal cord is a thick nerve located in the cavity of the backbone. Its upper end is
connected to the brain. It is connected to all the parts of the body through nerves and controls
all the functions of the body by transmitting the information received through the sensory
organs to the brain.
• The nerves connect the brain and spinal cord to all parts of the body. There are three types of
nerves in our body:
• Cranial Nerves connect all parts of the head to the brain.
• Spinal Nerves connect all parts of the body to the spinal cord.
• Visceral Nerves connect the spinal cord to the internal organs.
Response pathways
Types of nerves
• Sensory
• Motor
Reflex
action
• Two neurons dominate the pathway, afferent nerves (receptor) and the efferent nerve (effector or excitor).
• Below is a brief description of the events that take place:
• Firstly, it begins with receptor detecting the stimulus or a sudden change in the environment, where the
instinct again has a role to play. The stimulus is received from a sensory organ.
• Then, the sensory neuron sends a signal to the relay neuron.
• This is followed with the relay neuron sending the signal to the motor neuron.
• Further, the motor neuron sends a signal to the effector.
• The effector produces an instantaneous response, for example, pulling away of the hand or a knee-jerk
reaction.
Give me some examples of reflex actions
• (type it while they say it)
Advantages of reflex actions:

- Protection
- Need not be learned
Cerebrum
Endocrine system
in humans
What are the
parts of the
endocrine system
• What is a hormone?
Hormones are chemical
substances that act like messenger
molecules in the body. After being
made in one part of the body, they
travel to other parts of the body
where they help control how cells
and organs do their work.
Let’s introduce the various organs
• Hypothalamus
• Pituitary
• Thyroid
• Pancreas
• Adrenals
• Ovaries
• Testes
Hypothala
mus
Thyroid
Parathyroid gland
• Releases PTH
Adrenal
glands
• Medulla:
Adrenaline:
- Increases BP, increases
sweating, metabolic rate.
- Causes restlessness, anxiety,
etc
Noradrenaline
- Causes blood vessels to
constrict (vasoconstrictor)
• Cortex:
- Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone): regulate Na, K and water in the
body. Release causes increase in absorption of Na, water and release
of K in the kidneys
- Corticosteroids (cortisol): Involved in fat redistribution, BP
maintenance, glucose levels.
- Sex-steroids: androgens and estrogens
Pancreas
Insulin
Insulin works to reduce the

blood glucose levels by storing
it in cells as glycogen so that it
can be used later for energy if
needed
What is diabetes?
• Diabetes is of two types: type 1 and type 2
• Type 1 is an autoimmune condition where the body is unable to produce enough
insulin, due to which blood sugar levels become very high which is very dangerous
• Type 2 is when the body does not respond to insulin and the blood sugar levels still
stay very high
• This makes the body think that there this not enough insulin so it continues to produce
more and more till the pancreas get tired. Eventually, when the pancreas get tired, they
stop producing insulin causing diabetes.
• The high blood sugar eventually causes eye, kidney, heart, foot problems, infections,
etc. It can also affect the nerves.
Glucagon, somatostatin
• Secreted by the alpha cells of the pancreas
• Does the opposite of insulin -> breaks down glycogen into glucose for
energy
• Somatostatin is produced by the delta cells of the Islets of Langerhans.
Inhibits the secretion of many hormones, eg GH
Gonads:
Ovaries
- Estrogen: Regulates the development of
secondary sexual features and mammary
glands. Also regulates growth follicles
Synthesis and secretion is controlled by FSH
- Progesterone: Once an egg is release from
the follicle, it becomes corpus luteum
which produces progesterone. This
prepares the inner lining of uterus for
pregnancy. If the egg/ovum gets fertilized,
then the corpus luteum stays and produces
progesterone to support the pregnancy for
the first 3 months, after which the
placenta takes over and produces
estrogen. If not pregnancy, corpus luteum
degenerates.
Testes: Male
• Testes are present in the scrotal sac
• They have cells called Leydig cells that produce testosterone. The
signal for the Leydig cells is LH hormone.
• It is involved in spermatogenesis, development of male secondary
sexual features and organs.
• What are secondary sexual features?
Pituitary hormones
• GH
• ACTH
• TSH
• FSH
• LH
• MSH: Melanocyte
• ADH
• Oxytocin
PLANT Coordination and control
• Do not have a specialized system for control and coordination
• External stimuli - protoplasmic movement for transport of water,
minerals
How does movement/response happen then?
- Stimulus
- Phytohormones/ plant growth regulators regulate plant responses
Plant movements
• Do they move?
• Movement with growth = tropic
movements; direction is determined by
stimulus
• Movement without growth = nastic
movements, not determined by stimulus
TROPISm
(turning)
• Phototropism (can you do the etymology?)
Light induced growth movement: step tips and root
tips
a) Positive phototropism: Which one shows this:
stem or root?
b) Negative phototropism: Which one shows this
c) Which hormone is involved in this?: AUXIN.
Auxin migrates to the shady side of the stem from
the bright side to cause lengthening of that side of
the stem
Riboflavin pigment acts like the photoreceptor
Geotropism/gravitotropism (gravis=
heavy)
• Which one is which now? Positive and negative
chemotropism
• Stimulus is?
• Eg: Pollen tubes grow towards
ovules during fertilization.
The direction of growth
towards the ovary is guided by
chemicals produced by the
embryo sac
Hydrotropism
• ETYMOLOGY
Roots are positively hydrotropic.
This response is stronger than
geotropic response.
Started by the root cap sensing
the water  signal sent to the
elongating part of the root.
Thigmotro
pism
• Stimulus?
• Response is rapid
NASTIC MOVEMENTS
• Non directional, immediate response
• External stimuli: temperature, humidity, light, radiation.
• Nastic movement in response to TOUCH: reversible
• TYPES: Seismonastic, Nyctinastic

Seismonastic
movement
• Mechanical stimuli: touch, raindrops, fast moving wind
• Eg: Mimosa pudica:
• How does this happen?
• Pulvini (swollen areas at the base of the petioles): high
concentration of parenchymatous cells.
• If touched, the cells in the lower half of the pulcin loses
turgor and the entire plant folds. Later, regain turgor and
open up. Osmotic process
Nyctinastic
• Circadian rhythmic nastic
movement of plants in
response to darkness or
temperature.
• Same as thigmonastic, except
turgor change is slower
• Eg: Oxalis- Photonasty
Thermonasty
Chemical
coordination in
plants
• Phytohormones: Growth
promoters, Growth
inhibitors
Auxin
• Cell elongation of stems and roots
• It causes apical dominance- IAA in the apical bud
suppresses the growth of the lateral buds
• It induces PARTHENOCARPY: development of
fruit without fertilization: eg tomatoes
• Prevents premature falling of leaves, flowers, fruits
• Synthetic form acts like a herbicide and kills
unwanted plants
• Helps in cell division and xylem differentiation

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Control and

• (type it while they say it)

Advantages of reflex actions:

Insulin works to reduce the

• TYPES: Seismonastic, Nyctinastic

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