Data Communication Networks

Department of Electronics & Communication

Engineering
Syllabus
 Unit-1 Syllabus
Unit-1 Topics Slide Number
• Goals and Applications of Networks 4

• Protocols & Standards 23

• The Internet 25
• Layered Tasks---OSI reference Model 32
• TCP / IP 47
• Addressing in TCP / IP 49

• Line Coding Review 56

 Data Communications
• Data Communications are the exchange of data between two devices
via some form of transmission medium.
• When we communicate, we are sharing information. This sharing can
be local or remote. Between individuals, local communication usually
occurs face to face, while remote communication takes place over
distance.
• A data communications system has five components:-
1. Message.
2. Sender.
3. Receiver
4. Transmission medium.
5. Protocol
 Components of DCN
1. Message. The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of information
include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

2. Sender. The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

3. Receiver. The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium. The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message travels from
sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-
optic cable, and radio waves.

5. Protocol. A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an agreement
between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be connected but not
communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a person who speaks only
Japanese.
 Network and Networking
• A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by
communication links.
• A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending
and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.

• Network is an interconnection of two or more two devices which are connected

to each other.
• Networking is done to communicate and share available information between
two or more devices.
 Network
Distributed Processing
Most networks use distributed processing, in which a task is divided among multiple
computers.
Instead of one single large machine being responsible for all aspects of a process, separate
computers (usually a personal computer or workstation) handle a subset.
 Effectiveness of DCN
The effectiveness of a data communications system depends on four fundamental
characteristics: delivery, accuracy, timeliness, and jitter.
1. Delivery. The system must deliver data to the correct destination. Data must be received
by the intended device or user and only by that device or user.
2. Accuracy. The system must deliver the data accurately. Data that have been altered in
transmission and left uncorrected are unusable.
3. Timeliness. The system must deliver data in a timely manner. Data delivered late are
useless. In the case of video and audio, timely delivery means delivering data as they are
produced, in the same order that they are produced, and without significant delay. This kind
of delivery is called real-time transmission.
4. Jitter. Jitter refers to the variation in the packet arrival time. It is the uneven delay in the
delivery of audio or video packets. For example, let us assume that video packets are sent
every 30ms. If some of the packets arrive with 30-ms delay and others with 40-ms delay, an
uneven quality in the video is the result.
 Network Criterion
• Performance:- Performance can be measured in many ways, including transit time and response
time. Transit time is the amount of time required for a message to travel from one device to
another. Response time is the elapsed time between an inquiry and response. The performance
of network depends on a matter of factors, including the number of the type of transmission
medium, the capabilities and the efficiency.
• Performance is often evaluated by two networking metrics: throughput and delay We often need
more throughput and less delay. However, the two criteria contradictory. If we try to send data
to the network, we may increase throughput but we increase the delay because of traffic
congestion in the network.
• Reliability:- In addition to accuracy of delivery, network reliability is measured by the frequency
of failure, the time it takes a link to recover from a failure.
• Security :- Network security include protecting data from unauthorized access, protecting data
from damage and development, sad implementing policies and procedures for recovery from
breaches and data losses.
 Message Timing & Message Delivery
oMessage Timing: options
These are the rules of engagement for message timing:
Access Method : It determines when someone is able to send a message.
Flow Control : Timing also affects how much information can be sent and the
speed that it can be delivered.
Response Timeout : Hosts on the network also have rules that specify how
long to wait for responses and what action to take if a response timeout occurs.

o Message Delivery Options:

1.Unicast : message sends to single one
2.Multicast : message sends to some people
3.Broadcast : message sends to everyone
 Types of Connection-Point to Point
• A link is a communications pathway that transfers data from one device to another. For visualization
purposes, it is simplest to imagine any link as a line drawn between two points.
• There are two possible types of connections: point-to-point and multipoint.
• Point-to-Point A Point-to-Point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices. The entire
capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those ten devices. Mast point-to-point
connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the two ends, but ether options, such as
microwave or satellite links, are also possible (see Figure 1.3a).
• Example:- When you change television channels by infrared remote control you are establishing a
point-in-point connection between the remote control and the television's control system.
 Types of Connection - Multipoint
• Multipoint A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific
devices share a single link (see Figure).
• In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or temporally.
• If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared connection. If users must
take turns, it is a timeshared connection.
 Data Flow
• In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street.
• Only one of the two devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive (see
Figure). Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices.
• The key- board can only introduce input; the monitor can only accept output. The
simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one
direction.
 Data Flow
• Half-Duplex: In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same
time. When one device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa (see Figure).
• The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. When cars are
traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait.
• In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the
two devices is transmitting at the time.
• Walkie-talkies and CB (citizens band) radios are both half-duplex systems. The half duplex mode is
used in cases where there is no need for communication
 Data Flow
• In full-duplex mode (also called duplex), both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously (see
Figure).
• The full-duplex mode is like a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time.
• In full-duplex mode, signals going in one direction share the capacity of the link with signals going in the
other direction. This sharing can occur in two ways: Either the link must contain two physically separate
transmission paths, one for sending and the other for receiving; or the capacity of the channel is divided
between signals traveling in both directions.
• One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two people are
communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
• The full-duplex mode is used when communication in both directions is required all the time. The
capacity of the channel, however, must be divided between the two directions.
 Categories of Networks
CATEGORIES OF NETWORK:
1. LAN(Local Area Network)
2. WAN(Wide Area Network)
3. MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
4. WLAN(Wireless LAN)
 Categories of Network-LAN
• A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single office, building, or campus
(see Figure) Depending on the needs of an organization and the type of technology used, a LAN can be as simple
as two PCs and a printer in someone's home office, or it can extend throughout a company and include audio and
video peripherals. Currently, LAN size is limited to a few kilometers.
• LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers or workstations. The resources
to be shared can include hardware (e.g., a printer), software (e.g., an application program), or data.
• A common example of a LAN, found in many business environments, links a workgroup of task-related computers,
for example, engineering workstations or accounting PCs. One of the computers may be given a large- capacity disk
drive and may become a server to clients. Software can be stored on this central server and used as needed by
the whole group. In this example, the size of the LAN may be determined by licensing restrictions on the number of
users per copy of soft- ware, or by restrictions on the number of users licensed to access the operating system.
• In addition to size, LANs are distinguished from other types of networks by their transmission media and topology.
In general, a given LAN will use only one type of transmission medium. The most common LAN topologies are bus,
ring, and star.
• Early LANs had data rates in the 4 to 16 megabits per second (Mbps) range. Today, however, speeds are normally
100 or 1000 Mbps.
LAN
 Categories of Network-WAN
• A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio, and video
information over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole
world.
• A WAN can be as complex as the backbones that connect the Internet or as simple as a dial-up line
that connects a home computer to the Internet.
• The switched WAN connects the end systems, which usually comprise a router (internet- working
connecting device) that connects to another LAN or WAN.
• The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a telephone or cable TV provider that connects
a home computer of a small LAN to an Internet service provider (ISP). This type of WAN is often used
to provide Internet access
• An early example of a switched WAN is X.25, a network designed to provide connectivity between end
users. X.25 is being gradually replaced by a high-speed, more efficient network called Frame Relay. A
good example of a switched WAN is the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM) network, which is a net-
work with fixed-size data unit packets called cells.
• Another example of WANs is the wireless WAN that is becoming more and more popular.
WAN
 Categories of Network-MAN
• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN. It normally
covers the area inside a town or a city. It is designed for customers who need a high-speed
connectivity, normally to the Internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part of city.
• Example 1 the telephone company network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer.
Example 2 the cable TV network that originally was designed for cable TV, but today can also be used
for high-speed data connection to the Internet.
• Interconnection of Networks: Internetwork
• Today, it is very rare to see a LAN, a MAN, or LAN in isolation, they are connected to one another.
When two or more networks are connected, they become an Internetwork, or internet.
• Example, assume that an organization has two offices, one on the east coast and the other on the
west coast. The established office on the west coast has a bus topology LAN, the newly opened office
on the east coast has a star topology LAN. The president of the company lives somewhere in the
middle and needs to have control over the company
 MAN

BUS topology LAN STAR topology LAN

 Protocol
• A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications.

• A protocol defines what is communicated, how it is communicated, and when it is communicated. The key
elements of a protocol are syntax, semantics, and timing.

o Syntax. The term syntax refers to the structure or format of the data, meaning the order in which they are
presented. For example, a simple protocol might expect the first 8 bits of data to be the address of the
sender, the second 8 bits to be the address of the receiver, and the rest of the stream to be the message
itself.

o Semantics. The word semantics refers to the meaning of each section of bits. How is a particular pattern
to be interpreted, and what action is to be taken based on that interpretation? For example, does an address
identify the route to be taken or the final destination of the message?

o Timing. The term timing refers to two characteristics: when data should be sent and how fast they can be
sent. For example, if a sender produces data at 100 Mbps but the receiver can process data at only 1 Mbps,
the transmission will overload the receiver and some data will be lost.
 Standards
Standards are essential in creating and maintaining an open and competitive market for
equipment manufacturers and in guaranteeing national and international interoperability of
data and telecommunications technology and processes.

Standards provide guidelines to manufacturers, vendors, government agencies, and other

service providers to ensure the kind of interconnectivity necessary in today's marketplace and
in international communications.

Standards Organizations Standards are developed through the cooperation of standards

creation committees, forums, and government regulatory agencies.

International Organization for Standardization (ISO).

International Telecommunication Union-Telecommunication Standards Sector (ITU-T)
American National Standards Institute (ANSI).
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE).
Electronic Industries Association (EIA).
 Internet
• In the mid-1960s, mainframe computers in research organizations were standalone
devices. Computers from different manufacturers were unable to communicate with
one another. The Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA) in the Department of
Defense (DoD) was interested in finding a way to connect computers so that the
researchers they funded could share their findings, thereby reducing costs and
eliminating duplication of effort.

• In 1967, at an Association for Computing Machinery (ACM) meeting, ARPA presented

its ideas for ARPANET, a small network of connected computers. The idea was that
each host computer (not necessarily from the same manufacturer) would be attached
to a specialized computer, called an inteiface message processor (IMP). The IMPs, in
tum, would be connected to one another. Each IMP had to be able to communicate
with other IMPs as well as with its own attached host.
 Internet
• By 1969, ARPANET was a reality. Four nodes, at the University of California at Los
Angeles (UCLA), the University of California at Santa Barbara (UCSB), Stanford
Research Institute (SRI), and the University of Utah, were connected via the IMPs to
form a network. Software called the Network Control Protocol (NCP) provided
communication between the hosts.

• In 1972, Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn, both of whom were part of the core ARPANET group,
collaborated on what they called the Internetting Projec1. Cerf and Kahn's landmark
1973 paper outlined the protocols to achieve end-to-end delivery of packets. This
paper on Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) included concepts such as
encapsulation, the datagram, and the functions of a gateway.
 Internet
• It is made up of many wide- and local-area networks joined by connecting
devices and switching stations.
• It is difficult to give an accurate representation of the Internet because it
is continually changing-new networks are being added, existing networks
are adding addresses, and networks of defunct companies are being
removed.
• Today most end users who want Internet connection use the services of
Internet service providers (lSPs). There are international service providers,
national service providers, regional service providers, and local service
providers.
• The Internet today is run by private companies, not the government.
 National ISP

National Internet Service Providers The national Internet service providers are
backbone networks created and maintained by specialized companies.

There are many national ISPs operating in North America; some of the most well
known are SprintLink, PSINet, UUNet Technology, AGIS, and internet Mel.

To provide connectivity between the end users, these backbone networks are
connected by complex switching stations (normally run by a third party) called
network access points (NAPs).

Some national ISP networks are also connected to one another by private switching
stations called peering points. These normally operate at a high data rate (up to
600 Mbps).
Internet Service Provider
 Regional & Local ISP

• Regional Internet Service Providers Regional internet service providers or regional ISPs
are smaller ISPs that are connected to one or more national ISPs. They are at the third
level of the hierarchy with a smaller data rate.

• Local Internet Service Providers Local Internet service providers provide direct service
to the end users. The local ISPs can be connected to regional ISPs or directly to national
ISPs. Most end users are connected to the local ISPs. Note that in this sense, a local ISP
can be a company that just provides Internet services, a corporation with a network that
supplies services to its own employees, or a nonprofit organization, such as a college or
a university, that runs its own network. Each of these local ISPs can be connected to a
regional or national service provider.
Internet Service Provider
 Open System Interconnection (OSI Layers)
OSI Reference Model
Open System Interconnection (OSI Layers)
 Open System Interconnection (OSI Layers)
1.PHYSICAL LAYER: It is responsible for the actual physical connection between the devices(converts
flowing data in form of 0’s and 1’s).

2.DATA LINK LAYER: It is responsible for node to node delivery of the message. Its function is to make sure
that the data is error free

3.NETWORK LAYER: It is responsible for the transmission of data from one host to the other location by
selecting the shortest path.

4.TRANSPORT LAYER: It provides services to application layer and takes services from network layer. It is
responsible for the end to end delivery of the complete message.

5.SESSION LAYER: This layer is responsible for establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,
authentication and also ensures security.

6.PRESENTATION LAYER: The data from the application layer is processed here as per the required format
to transmit over the network.

7.APPLICATION LAYER: This layer produces the data which has to be transferred over the network.
 1. Physical Layer (OSI Layers)
Functions of the Physical Layer

•Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization of the bits by providing a
clock. This clock controls both sender and receiver thus providing synchronization at the bit level.
•Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate i.e. the number of bits sent per
second.
•Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies how the different, devices/nodes are arranged in a
network i.e. bus, star, or mesh topology.
•Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines how the data flows between the two connected
devices. The various transmission modes possible are Simplex, half-duplex and full-duplex.

 Note: Hub, Repeater, Modem, and Cables are Physical Layer devices.
 Network Layer, Data Link Layer, and Physical Layer are also known as Lower Layers or Hardware
Layers.
Network Devices
HUB
 2. Data Link Layer (OSI Layers)
• The data link layer is responsible for the node-to-node delivery of the message. The main
function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error-free from one node to another, over
the physical layer.
• When a packet arrives in a network, it is the responsibility of the DLL to transmit it to the Host
using its MAC address.

The Data Link Layer is divided into two sublayers:

1.Logical Link Control (LLC)
2.Media Access Control (MAC)

• The packet received from the Network layer is further divided into frames depending on the
frame size of the NIC(Network Interface Card). DLL also encapsulates Sender and Receiver’s
MAC address in the header.
• The Receiver’s MAC address is obtained by placing an ARP(Address Resolution Protocol)
request onto the wire asking “Who has that IP address?” and the destination host will reply with
its MAC address.
 2. Data Link Layer (OSI Layers)
Functions of the Data Link Layer
•Framing: Framing is a function of the data link layer. It provides a way for a sender to transmit a set of bits
that are meaningful to the receiver. This can be accomplished by attaching special bit patterns to the beginning
and end of the frame.
•Physical addressing: After creating frames, the Data link layer adds physical addresses (MAC addresses) of
the sender and/or receiver in the header of each frame.
•Error control: The data link layer provides the mechanism of error control in which it detects and
retransmits damaged or lost frames.
•Flow Control: The data rate must be constant on both sides else the data may get corrupted thus, flow
control coordinates the amount of data that can be sent before receiving an acknowledgment.
•Access control: When a single communication channel is shared by multiple devices, the MAC sub-layer of
the data link layer helps to determine which device has control over the channel at a given time.

Note:
Switch & Bridge are Data Link Layer devices.
Packet in the Data Link layer is referred to as Frame.
Data Link layer is handled by the NIC (Network Interface Card) and device drivers of host machines.
 3. Network Layer (OSI Layers)
• The network layer works for the transmission of data from one host to the other located in different
networks.
• It also takes care of packet routing i.e. selection of the shortest path to transmit the packet, from
the number of routes available.
• The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.

Functions of the Network Layer

•Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is suitable from source to destination.
This function of the network layer is known as routing.
•Logical Addressing: To identify each device on Internetwork uniquely, the network layer defines an
addressing scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP addresses are placed in the header by the network layer.
Such an address distinguishes each device uniquely and universally.

Segment in the Network layer is referred to as Packet.

Network layer is implemented by networking devices such as routers and switches.
 4. Transport Layer (OSI Layers)
• The transport layer provides services to the application layer and takes services from the
network layer.
• The data in the transport layer is referred to as Segments.
• It is responsible for the End to End Delivery of the complete message.
• The transport layer also provides the acknowledgment of the successful data transmission and re-
transmits the data if an error is found.

• At the sender’s side: The transport layer receives the formatted data from the upper layers,
performs Segmentation, and also implements Flow & Error control to ensure proper data
transmission.

• It also adds Source and Destination port numbers in its header and forwards the segmented
data to the Network Layer.
 4. Transport Layer (OSI Layers)
Functions of the Transport Layer

• Segmentation and Reassembly: This layer accepts the message from the (session) layer, and
breaks the message into smaller units. Each of the segments produced has a header associated
with it. The transport layer at the destination station reassembles the message.

• Service Point Addressing: To deliver the message to the correct process, the transport layer
header includes a type of address called service point address or port address. Thus by
specifying this address, the transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the
correct process.
 4. Transport Layer (OSI Layers)
Services Provided by Transport Layer
1.Connection-Oriented Service
2.Connectionless Service

1. Connection-Oriented Service: It is a three-phase process that includes

•Connection Establishment
•Data Transfer
•Termination/disconnection
In this type of transmission, the receiving device sends an acknowledgment, back to the
source after a packet or group of packets is received. This type of transmission is reliable and
secure.

2. Connectionless service: It is a one-phase process and includes Data Transfer. In this type
of transmission, the receiver does not acknowledge receipt of a packet. This approach allows
for much faster communication between devices. Connection-oriented service is more reliable
than connectionless Service.
 5. Session Layer (OSI Layers)
This layer is responsible for the establishment of connection, maintenance of sessions,
authentication, and also ensures security.

Functions of the Session Layer

•Session establishment, maintenance, and termination: The layer allows the two processes
to establish, use and terminate a connection.

•Synchronization: This layer allows a process to add checkpoints that are considered
synchronization points in the data. These synchronization points help to identify the error so
that the data is re-synchronized properly, and ends of the messages are not cut prematurely and
data loss is avoided.

•Dialog Controller: The session layer allows two systems to start communication with each
other in half-duplex or full-duplex.
 6. Presentation Layer (OSI Layers)
• The data from the application layer is extracted here and manipulated as per the required
format to transmit over the network.
• The presentation layer is also called the Translation layer.

Functions of the Presentation Layer:-

•Translation: For example, ASCII to EBCDIC.

•Encryption/ Decryption: Data encryption translates the data into another form or code. The
encrypted data is known as the ciphertext and the decrypted data is known as plain text. A
key value is used for encrypting as well as decrypting data.

•Compression: Reduces the number of bits that need to be transmitted on the network.

Note: Device or Protocol Use : JPEG, MPEG, GIF

 7. Application Layer (OSI Layers)
• The Application layer which is implemented by the network applications. These applications
produce the data, which has to be transferred over the network.
• This layer also serves as a window for the application services to access the network and for
displaying the received information to the user.

Example: Application – Browsers, Skype Messenger, etc.

Functions of the Application Layer:-

• Network Virtual Terminal: It allows a user to log on to a remote host.

• FTAM- File transfer access and management : This application allows a user to
access file in a remote host, retrieve files in remote host and manage or
control files from a remote computer.
• Mail Services : Provide email service.

• Directory Services : This application provides distributed database sources

and access for global information about various objects and services.
 TCP/IP Protocol
• The TCP/IP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model. Therefore, the layers in
the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the OSI model.
• The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers: host-to-network,
internet, transport, and application. However, when TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can
say that the host-to-network layer is equivalent to the combination of the physical and
data link layers.
• The internet layer is equivalent to the network layer, and the application layer is
roughly doing the job of the session, presentation, and application layer with the
transport layer in TCP/IP taking care of part of the duties of the session layer
• we assume that the TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical, data link,
network, transport, and application. The first four layers provide physical standards,
network interfaces, internetworking, and transport functions that correspond to the
first four layers of the OSI model.
• The three topmost layers in the OSI model however, are represented in TCP/IP by a
single layer called the application layer (see Figure).
 TCP/IP Protocol
1.NETWORK ACCESS LAYER: It looks out for hardware
addressing and the protocols present in this layer allows the physical
transmission of data.

2.INTERNET LAYER: It defines the protocol which are responsible

for logical transmission of data.

3.TRANSPORT LAYER: It is responsible for end to end

transmission of message.

4.APPLICATION LAYER: This layer produces the data which has to

be transferred.
 Addressing in TCP/IP
• Physical address
• Logical address
• Port address
• Specific address
 Physical Address
• The physical address, also known as the link address, is the address of a node as
defined by its LAN or WAN.
• It is included in the frame used by the data link layer.
• It is the lowest-level address.
• The physical addresses have authority over the network (LAN or WAN). The size
and format of these addresses vary depending on the network.

• For example, Ethernet uses a 6-byte (48-bit) physical address that is imprinted on
the network interface card (NIC). LocalTalk (Apple), however, has a I-byte dynamic
address that changes each time the station comes up.
 Logical Address
• Logical addresses are necessary for universal communications that are
independent of underlying physical networks.
• Physical addresses are not adequate in an internetwork environment where
different networks can have different address formats.
• A universal addressing system is needed in which each host can be identified
uniquely, regardless of the underlying physical network. The logical addresses
are designed for this purpose.

• A logical address in the Internet is currently a 32-bit address that can uniquely
define a host connected to the Internet.
• No two publicly addressed and visible hosts on the Internet can have the same
IP address.
 Port Address
• The IP address and the physical address are necessary for a quantity of data to travel
from a source to the destination host. However, arrival at the destination host is not
the final objective of data communications on the Internet.

• A system that sends nothing but data from one computer to another is not complete.
Today, computers are devices that can run multiple processes at the same time. The
end objective of Internet communication is a process communicating with another
process.
• For example, computer A can communicate with computer C by using TELNET. At the
same time, computer A communicates with computer B by using the File Transfer
Protocol (FTP). For these processes to receive data simultaneously, we need a method
to label the different processes. In other words, they need addresses. In the TCPIIP
architecture, the label assigned to a process is called a port address. A port address in
TCP/IP is 16 bits in length.
 Specific Address
• Some applications have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that
specific address.
• Examples include the e-mail address (for example, [email protected]) and
the Universal Resource Locator (URL) (for example, www.mhhe.com).

• The first defines the recipient of an e-mail; the second is used to find a
document on the World Wide Web. These addresses, however, get changed to
the corresponding port and logical addresses by the sending computer,
LAYER & ADDRESSES RELATIONSHIP in
TCP/IP
 IP Addressing
• A unique string of numbers separated by full stops that identifies each computer
using the Internet Protocol to communicate over a network.

• The IP address is followed by a slash and the number (in decimal) of bits used
for the network part, also called the routing prefix. For example , an IPv4
address and its subnet mask may be 192.0.2.1 and 255.255.255.0, respectively.

• IP Address is of two forms:

1.IPV4 (32 bit)
2.IPV6 (128 bit)
 Line Coding
• Line Coding is the process of converting Digital data from source Encoder into Electrical Pulses.
• There are different types of Line Coding like ON-OFF,RZ,NRZ,MANCHESTER,DIFFERENTIAL,POLAR,BIPOLAR
with different properties
• EXAMPLE Sketch the line Codes for Digital Data 1010110010.
 References
1) B. A. Forouzan, “Data Communications and Networking”, 5th
Edition, TMH, 2017.

2) https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/open-systems-interconnection-
model-osi
/

3) S. Tanenbaum, “Computer Networks”, 4th Edition, Pearson,

2013.

4) W. Stallings, “Data and Computer Communication”, 8th Edition,

Pearson, 2007.
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