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Formal Chapter 2

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15 views21 pages

Formal Chapter 2

Uploaded by

Haile Melaku
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Chapter Two

Introduction to Grammars
2. Introduction to grammars:

 outline
 Introduction to grammars
 Phrase Structure Grammar and language
 Derivation

June 16, 2024 Formal Language & Automata Theory 2


 Introduction to grammars
 A formal language is a collection of strings

over ∑ with some rules known as grammars.

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 Grammar rules can be represented using a syntax
diagram.
 Alternatively BNF (Backus-Naur Form) notation can be
used.

Syntax Diagram
Example:
Identifier

Letter Letter

Letter

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Function Declaration using Syntax Diagram

type name ( variable )

June 16, 2024 Formal Language & Automata Theory 5


 BNF uses the following:
 Nonterminals : are enclosed by <>.
 Terminals are represented as they are.
 { } - represent repetition of nonterminals, terminals
zero or more times
 ::= stands for “is defined as”
 | stands for OR
 () used to group symbols

Ex.
<identifier> ::= <letter>|<letter>{<letter>|<digit>}
<letter> ::= a|b|c|…
<digit> ::= 0|1|2|…|9

June 16, 2024 Formal Language & Automata Theory 6


Intro …cont’d

Ex 1: Definition of C++ function in BNF

<funct def> ::= <type>|<name>({<parameter>})


<type> ::= int|float|double|void
<name> ::= <identifier>
<parameter>:=<type>|<type><identifier>

June 16, 2024 Formal Language & Automata Theory 7


Introduction to grammars: cont’d
 Phrase Structure Grammar (PSG)
 Definition: A PSG is a 4-tuple (N, T, P, S)

where:
a. N is a finite set of nonterminals
b. T is a finite set of terminals
c. P is a finite set of productions /rules/ of the form
αβ, where α and β are strings on N U T and α
should contain at least one symbol from N.
d. S Є N is the start symbol of the grammar.
Note: The right hand side production, β, can be
an empty string. Such a production is called a
λ-production.

June 16, 2024 Formal Language & Automata Theory 8


Intro …cont’d

 The production rules specify how to transform


one string to another
String =(T U N)*
 The production X->Y is used to replace X by

Y in the string

June 16, 2024 Formal Language & Automata Theory 9


Intro …cont’d
Ex 2. G = (N, T, P, S) = ({S, B, C}, {a, b, c}, P, S)
where P is given by:

S  aSBC | aBC
BC  CB
aB  ab
C  Cc | λ

June 16, 2024 Formal Language & Automata Theory 10


Introduction to grammars: cont’d
Derivation
 If α generates β, then we write α => β
 If α => α , α => α , …, α
1 2 2 3 n-1 => αn, then we write
α1 => α2 => α3 => … => αn or α1 => αn +
 Let G = (N, T, P, S) be a grammar, if S => α in zero or
more steps, α Є (N U T)*, then α is called a sentential
form.
 A sentence (in G) is a sentential form in T*.
 The language generated from the grammar G is
denoted by L(G).
*
L(G) = {x Є T* | S =>* x}
i.e. L(G) is the set of all terminal strings derived from
the start symbol S.

June 16, 2024 Formal Language & Automata Theory 11


Introduction to grammars: cont’d
Example of a grammar:.
G = (N, T, P, S) where:
N = {<sentence>, <noun>, <verb>, <adverb>}
T = {Sam, Dan, ate, sang, well}
S = <sentence>
P consists of:
<sentence>  <noun><verb> |
<noun><verb><adverb>
<noun>  Sam | Dan
<verb>  ate | sang
<adverb>  well

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Example
Let us consider the grammar −
G = ({S, A}, {a, b}, S, {S → aAb, aA → aaAb, A → λ } )
Some of the strings that can be derived are −
S ⇒ aAb using production S → aAb
⇒ aaAbb using production aA → aAb
⇒ aaaAbbb using production aA → aAb
⇒ aaabbb using production A → λ

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Example:
Suppose we have the following grammar −
G:
N = {S, A, B}
T = {a, b}
P = {S → AB, A → aA|a, B → bB|b}

The language generated by this grammar −


L(G) = {ab, a2b, ab2, a2b2, ………}
= {am bn | m ≥ 1 and n ≥ 1}

June 16, 2024 Formal Language & Automata Theory 14


Introduction to grammars: cont’d
Ex3.
S  A|B
A  aA|bB|a|b
B  bB|b

Ex4.
S  a|bS

Ex5.
S  aA|bB|a|b
A  aA|a
B  bB|b

June 16, 2024 Formal Language & Automata Theory 15


Introduction to grammars: cont’d
 Note: that reverse derivation is not permitted. For
instance, if S  AB is a production, then we can
replace S by AB, but we cannot replace AB by S.
 Notations:
i. If A is any set, then A* denotes the set of all strings
over A and A+ = A* - {λ}
ii. A, B, C, A1, A2, … denote nonterminals
iii. a, b, c, … denote terminals
iv. x, y, z, w, … denote strings of terminals
v. α, β, … denote strings from (N U T)*
vi. If A  α is a production where A Є N, the production
is called an A-production
vii. If A  α1, A  α2, A  α3, A  α4 … A  αn are all
A-productions, these can be written as A  α1| α2| α3|
α4|… αn
viii. X0 = λ for any symbol X Є N U T
June 16, 2024 Formal Language & Automata Theory 16
Introduction to grammars: cont’d
Definition: Let G1 and G2 be two grammars, then G1 and
G2 are equivalent if L(G1) = L(G2).

Ex6. G = ({S}, {a}, {S  SS|a}, S).


Find L(G)

Ex7. G = ({S, C}, {a, b}, P, S) where P is given by:


S  aCa
C  aCa | b
Find L(G)

Ex8. G = ({S}, {a}, {S  aS|a}, S).


Find L(G)

June 16, 2024 Formal Language & Automata Theory 17


Construction of a Grammar Generating a
Language
Ex:
Suppose, L (G) = {am bn | m > 0 and n ≥ 0}. We have to find
out the grammar G which produces L(G)
Solution −
Since L(G) = {am bn | m > 0 and n ≥ 0}, the set of strings
accepted can be rewritten as −
L(G) = {a, aa, ab, aaa, aab ,abb, …….}

Hence the grammar −


G: ({S, A, B}, {a, b}, S, {S → aA, A → aA | λ| B, B → λ |
bB })
June 16, 2024 Formal Language & Automata Theory 18
Find the grammar that generates :
L={anbn+1 : n≥0}

Solution:
P:
S→aSb | b

June 16, 2024 Formal Language & Automata Theory 19


Exercise:9
Let L be the set of all palindromes over {a, b}.
Construct a grammar G that generates L.
Hint: Use the following recursive definition
i. λ is a palindrome
ii. a, b are palindromes
iii. If x is a palindrome, axa and bxb are palindromes

EX: L ={ambm+ncn | m,n>0 }


find G.

June 16, 2024 Formal Language & Automata Theory 20


Assignment

 Exercise number 6-9 will be your individual


assignment and will be submitted by next
week.

June 16, 2024 Formal Language & Automata Theory 21

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