Unit 41:

Conservation
& Biodiversity

Lecture 2
Species

Biotic

Abiotic
 What is biodiversity?
Definition:
**Processes of Natural Selection**
**Processes of Natural Selection**
1. Variation: Individuals in a species show a wide range of
variation (variation caused by a difference in genes)

2. Population growth: More offspring produced than resources

in an environment can support

3. Differential survival & reproduction: individuals more suited

to environment = increased chance of survival

4. Inheritance: successful genes allowing survival in an

environment are passed on to offspring
 Lecture 1:
LO1: Review theories
that account for the The evolution of biodiversity
creation of biodiversity Evolutionary Science
 Endemic Irish Species Facing Extinction

Irish hare Irish Red Deer Red Squirrel Pygmy Shrew

Horse mussel European eel Zostera seagrass Irish skate

Mechanisms of
Evolution
• Natural selection is non-random nor progressive

• Result of natural selection is adaptation to the prevailing environment

• Nor is it predetermined, it doesn’t lead to a predetermined goal

• The term ‘adaptation’ implies that organisms are matched to their present
environments, suggesting ‘design’ or ‘prediction’

Note: Organisms have not been designed/ fitted to the present, but have
been moulded by natural selection by past environments
Evolved Perfection
?
• Temptation to regard each case of as
an example of evolved perfection
• Evolutionary process works on the
genetic variation that is available

• Organisms come to match their

environments by being ‘ the fittest
available’ or ‘the fittest yet’: they are
not ‘the best imaginable’
Evolution forces the characteristics of
populations to diverge from each other if:
(1) There is sufficient heritable variation on which selection can act

(2) Forces favouring divergence are strong enough to counteract the

mixing and hybridisation of individuals from different sites (two
populations will not diverge completely if their members are
continually migrating between them and mixing their genes)
Species
definition
• A group of organisms that can reproduce and produce viable, fertile
offspring
 Macroevolution

Divergent Convergent
Divergent Evolution

• A single species interbreeds (via natural or artificial breeding)

• Through breeding the original species branches off becoming different species and continues to evolve (becoming less
similar)

• The species have now diverged

• Divergent evolution is macroevolution that creates more diversity in species

• Drivers: environmental change, chance events, natural disasters (e.g. volcanoes and weather phenomena, disease spread)
Divergent
Evolution
Divergent evolution vs adaptive radiation

• Two terms are used interchangeably

• Adaptive radiation focuses on the microevolution of a rapidly reproducing population

• Adaptive radiation may lead to divergent evolution over time as the new species become
less similar or diverge in different directions

• Divergent evolution takes more time

• Divergent evolution occurs more quickly if there is some sort of physical barrier or a
reproductive or biological difference that keeps the population from interbreeding once
again
Examples of Divergent
Evolution
• Darwin’s finches

• Mammals: individuals
dissimilar over a long
period of time, not
counting periods relating
to mass extinctions
Convergent
Evolution
• When unrelated organisms, independently evolve
similar traits as a result of having to adapt to similar
environments or ecological niches

• CE is the opposite of DE, where related species evolve

different traits

• Molecular level: CE can happen due to random mutation

• Example: nature of flight/wings of insects, birds and bats

-The adaptation of wings all served the same function and
are similar in structure, but each evolved independently
Parallel evolution,
the evolution of
geographically
separated groups in
such a way that they
show morphological
resemblances. A
notable example is
the similarity shown
by the marsupial
mammals of Australia
to the placental
mammals elsewhere
Distribution of Global Ecosystems
• A variety of ecosystems are spread across the world, each with distinctive interacting
characteristics and components

• They range from small (e.g. a freshwater pond) to global (e.g. the desert biome)

Ecosystems are dependent on the following abiotic or non-living components:

o climate - the temperature and amount of rainfall are very important in determining
which species can survive in the ecosystem
o soil - the soil type is important as this provides nutrients that will support different
plants
o water - the amount of water available in an ecosystem will determine what plants and
animals can be supported
o The biotic parts of the ecosystem have a complex relationship with the abiotic
components - changing one will lead to a change in the other
 Coral Reef Ecosystems
• Coral reef ecosystems are some of the most
diverse ecosystems in the world

• Coral reefs are referred to as the tropical

rainforests of the oceans

Characteristics:
 Shallow water, reef-building corals have a
symbiotic relationship with photosynthetic algae
called zooxanthellae, which live in their tissues
 The coral provides a protected environment and
the compounds zooxanthellae need for
photosynthesis
 In return, the algae produce carbohydrates that
the coral uses for food, as well as oxygen - the
algae also help the coral remove waste
 Environmental
Gradients
• Across the habitats on Earth there are many
environmental gradients

• An animals tolerance to abiotic conditions –

determines its geographic distribution

E.G. Coral reefs are found primarily in Southern

distributions - why?

Coral requires sunlight for growth therefore

irradiance conc. shallow seas, temperature with
low water turbidity are all ecological requirements
defining their geographic distribution
World Biomes
• Globally the Earth is divided into approx. 10 different ecosystems
• These large-scale ecosystems are called biomes
• Biomes do not usually have abrupt boundaries but gradually merge in
boundary regions - ecotones

Tundra

Taiga Alpine

Grasslands

Savanna Deciduous forest

Rainforest
Desert Desert-scrub Chaparral
Biomes

• Climate and geography of a region determines the type of biome

(temp. and precipitation)

• Each biome consists of many ecosystems whose communities have

adapted to small differences in climate and environment within that
biome
Environmental Conditions
• An organism must tolerate the local conditions and that essential
resources are being provided

• Conditions and resources are two distinct properties of environments

that determine where an organism can live

• Conditions: physiochemical features of the environment such as its

temperature, humidity, pH, or in aquatic environment = salinity
(not used up by the activities of organisms)

• Resources: are consumed by organisms in the course of their growth

and reproduction
Effects of
conditions
• Temperature, relative humidity, and other physiochemical conditions
induce a range of physiological responses in organisms, which
determine whether the physical environment is habitable for them or
not

• Three types of response curves

• Environments experienced by a species in different parts of its range
are different – you would expect natural selection to have favoured
different variants of species at different sites
Evolution forces the characteristics of
populations to diverge from each other if:
(1) There is sufficient heritable variation on which selection can act

(2) Forces favouring divergence are strong enough to counteract the

mixing and hybridisation of individuals from different sites (two
populations will not diverge completely if their members are
continually migrating between them and mixing their genes)
Speciatio
n
• Natural selection can force populations of plants and animals to
change their character – to evolve

• Ecological speciation is driven by divergent natural selection in distinct

subpopulations
Speciation
Scenario
• Two subpopulations become geographically isolated
• Natural selection drives genetic adaptations to their local environments
• As a by product of genetic differentiation. A degree of reproductive isolation
builds up between the two
• Pre-zygotic barrier: preventing mating taking place (e.g. differences in
courtship ritual)
• Post-zygotic barrier: reduced viability – the offspring themselves
• The two subpopulations re-meet
• Hybrids between individuals from the different subpopulations are now of
low fitness
• Natural selection will then favour any feature in either subpopulation that
reinforces reproductive isolation (pre-zygotic characteristics)
• Preventing the production of low-fitness hybrid offspring
Speciatio
n
• Lineage splitting event producing two or more
separate species

Causes of speciation

(1) Geographic isolation: interbreeding disrupted by

geographic isolation e.g. rivers change course,
mountains rise, continents drift, migration – leading to
a division in a continuous population into two or more
smaller populations
Speciatio
n
(2) Reduction of gene flow: populations can extend over vast
geographic ranges, and, mating throughout the population may not be
random. Individuals in one area are unlikely to mate with individuals in
another area
Allopatric
speciation
• Speciation that depends on an external barrier to gene flow (such as
geographic isolation) to begin or complete the process of speciation

• Allopatry may start the process of speciation but, the evolution of

internal barriers (genetic changes) are required for the formation of
two distinct species

• If internal barriers do not evolve individuals when they come into

contact will continue to interbreed
Barriers to gene flow – contributing to speciation

• Evolution of different mating times, rituals and location

• ‘Lack of fit’ between sexual organs: e.g. damselfly genitalia differences

• Offspring inviability or sterility

+ =
Sympatric speciation

• Does not require large geographic distances to reduce gene flow

• Exploitation of a new niche may reduce gene flow

• Insects fed on more than one species of host plant, each requires
specialisation by the insects to overcome the plants defences
Adaptive Radiation
Geospiza – The Ground Finch
• Thick beaks
• Prey: seeds and arthropods

Certhidea olivasea – Warbler finch

• Slender, pointed beak
• Prey: Invertebrates

Camarhynchus pallidus - Woodpecker finch

• Behavioural adaptation – use twigs and cactus
spines
• Prey: insects hiding in trees
Islands and Speciation
• The most celebrated example of evolution
and speciation on islands is the case of
Darwin’s finches in the Galapagos archipelago

• 14 species of finch are found on the islands

• Evolutionary relatedness amongst them have

been traced by molecular techniques
(microsatellite DNA)

• This profiling has confirmed the Galapagos

finches radiated from a single ancestor (that
invaded from islands of mainland Central
America)

• The entire process of evolutionary divergence

occurred in less than 3 million years
Extra Reading for Wed. 28th September 2022
-Biomes: A Summary
-Petren et al. (Canvas)
-Schytte Blix 2016
 Polar Ecosystems (Arctic & Antarctica)
• Cold environments (both polar and tundra) are found in high
latitude areas and mountainous regions of the world

• Extreme climate and unique characteristics such as the soil type

and the plants and animals found there

Polar
Characteristics of polar areas include:
• Climate - long cold winters, with annual temperatures mostly
below freezing. Polar areas are often windy, with very little
precipitation
• Permanent ice caps cover polar landscapes
• Soil - the soil is covered in ice throughout the year
• Plants - hundreds of species of moss, algae and lichen survive
the harsh conditions of the Polar biome (few other plants can
survive)
• Animals – polar wildlife has evolved over thousands of years to
cope with polar environments – but conditions may be changing
faster than most can adapt to (more on this in two weeks time*)
Biome:
Grasslands
• Large, rolling terrains of grasses, flowers and
herbs
• Annual mean precipitation is great enough to
support grasses and in some regions trees
• Frequency erratic that drought and fire
collectively prevent further vegetation succession
• Common types of plant life on the North
American prairie: Buffalo Grass, Sunflower, Crazy
Weed, Asters, Blazing Stars, Coneflowers,
Goldenrods, Clover, and Wild Indigos
• Common animals: grasslands are Coyotes, Eagles,
Bobcats, the Gray Wolf, Wild Turkey, Fly Catcher,
Canadian Geese, Crickets, Dung Beetle, Bison,
and Prairie Chicken
Biome: Deciduous Forest
• Mean Annual Temperature in a deciduous forest is 10° C.
Average rainfall is 30 to 60 inches a year.
• Deciduous forests divided into 5 different zones. (1) Tree
Stratum zone. The Tree Stratum zone-trees as oak, beech,
maple, chestnut = height ranges between 60 feet and 100
feet.
• (2) Small tree and sapling zone : young, and short trees
• (3) Shrub zone: rhododendrons, azaleas, mountain laurel,
and huckleberries
• (4) Herb zone is the fourth zone: short plants such as herbal
plants
• (5) Ground zone: lichen, club mosses, and true mosses.
• Four distinct seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter.
In the autumn the leaves change color. During the winter
months the trees lose their leaves.
• Animals adapt to the climate by hibernating in the winter
and living off the land in the other three seasons.
• Plants have adapted to the forests by leaning toward the
sun. Soaking up the nutrients in the ground is also a way of
adaptation
Biome:
Chaparral
• Chaparral biome has many different types
of terrain e.g. flat plains, rocky hills and
mountain slopes. It is sometimes used in
movies for the "Wild West".
• Chaparral: very hot and dry
• Temperature: winter = mild about 10 °C
• Summer: hot and dry at 40 °C that fires and
droughts are very common.
• Plants and animals are adapted conditions:
plants have small, hard leaves which hold
moisture. E.g. poison oak, scrub oak, Yucca
Wiple and other shrubs, trees and cacti.
• Animals adapted to hot, dry weather. E.g.
coyotes, jack rabbits, mule deer, alligator
lizards, horned toads, praying mantis, honey
bee and ladybugs
Biome: Desert
• Hot and Dry Deserts are near the Tropic of Cancer or the Tropic of Capricorn
• Cold Deserts are near the Arctic part of the world.
• Hot and Dry Deserts temperature ranges from 20 to 25° C. The extreme maximum
temperature for Hot Desert ranges from 43.5 to 49° C. Cold Deserts temperature
in winter ranges from -2 to 4° C and in the summer 21 to 26° C a year
• Hot and Dry Deserts usually have very little rainfall and/or concentrated rainfall in
short periods between long rainless periods. This averages out to under 15 cm a
year. Cold Deserts usually have lots of snow. They also have rain around spring.
This averages out to 15 - 26 cm a year.
• Hot and Dry Deserts are warm throughout the fall and spring seasons and very
hot during the summer. the winters usually have very little if any rainfall. Cold
Deserts have quite a bit of snow during winter. The summer and the beginning of
the spring are barely warm enough for a few lichens, grasses and mosses to grow.
• Hot and Dry Deserts vegetation is very rare. Plants are almost all ground-hugging
shrubs and short woody trees. All of the leaves are replete (packed with
nutrients). Some examples of these kinds of plant are Turpentine Bush, Prickly
Pears, and Brittle Bush. For all of these plants to survive they have to have
adaptations. Some of the adaptations in this case are the ability to store water for
long periods of time and the ability to stand the hot weather.
• Cold Desert's plants are scattered
• Hot and Dry Deserts animals include small nocturnal (only active at night)
carnivores. There are also insects, arachnids, reptiles, and birds. Some examples
of these animals are Borrowers, Mourning Wheatears, and Horned Vipers. Cold
Deserts have animals like Antelope, Ground Squirrels, Jack Rabbits, and Kangaroo
Rats.
Biome:
Savanna
• A savanna is a rolling grassland scattered with shrubs
and isolated trees
• Found between a tropical rainforest and desert
biome
• Not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
• Savannas are also known as tropical grasslands -
found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
• Savannas have warm temperature year round
• Two very different seasons in a savanna; a very long
dry season (winter), and a very wet season (summer)
• In the dry season only an average of about 4 inches
of rain falls
• Between December and February no rain will fall at
all.
Biome:
Alpine
• Alpine biomes are found in the mountain regions all
around the world
• Found at altitudes of about 10,000 feet or more
• Alpine biome lies just below the snow line of a mountain
• As you go up a mountain, you will travel through many
biomes (e.g.)North American Rocky Mountains you begin
in a desert biome. As you climb you go through a
deciduous forest biome, grassland biome, steppe biome,
and taiga biome before you reach the cold Alpine biome.
• Severe climate of the Alpine biome, plants and animals
have developed adaptations to those conditions
• Approx. 200 species of Alpine plants
• At high altitudes there is very little CO2, which plants
need to carry on photosynthesis. Because of the cold and
wind, most plants are small perennial groundcover plants
• Taller plants or trees would soon get blown over and
freeze
• When plants die they don't decompose very quickly
because of the cold. This makes for poor soil conditions
• Most Alpine plants can grow in sandy and rocky soil
• Plants have also adapted to the dry conditions of the
Alpine biome