COMMUNICATION

Introduction…
• The term communication is derived from the
latin word communis, meaning common.
• In general, communication refers to the
reciprocal exchange of information, ideas,
facts, opinions, beliefs, feelings & attitudes
through verbal or nonverbal means between
two people or within a group of people.
 Definition of communication
• Communication is a process by which
information is exchanged between individuals
through a common system of symbols & signs
of behavior. - Webster’s Dictionary
• Communication is interchange of thoughts,
opinions or information by speech, writing or
signs.
 Meaning of Communication
• Communication as
• A process through which individuals mutually exchange their
ideas, values, thoughts, feeling & actions with one or more
people.
• The transfer of information from the sender to the receiver so
that it is understood in the right context.
• The process of initiating, transmitting & receiving information.
• The means of making the transfer of information productive
& goal oriented.
• The process of sharing information, ideas & attitudes
between individual.
 Elements of the communication
• Referent: • A referent motivates the sender
(or receiver) to share information (message,
objects, sounds, sights, time schedule, ideas,
perceptions, sensation, emotion, odour, etc.)
that may initiate communication.
• For example, a nurse, sighting a patient with
difficulty in breathing may serve as a referent
to the nurse promoting her to initiate
communication with the patient.
• Sender:
• A sender is a person who encodes & sends the message
to the expected receiver through an appropriate channel.
• A sender is the source of the message that is generated
to be delivered to the receiver after appropriate stimulus
from the referent.
• Message:
• The message is the content of communication & may
contain verbal, nonverbal or symbolic language.
• Perception & personal factors of the sender & receiver
may sometimes distort this element & the intended
outcome of communication may not be achieved. For ex,
the same message may be communicated or perceived
differently by two individuals.
• Channel:
• A channel is a medium through which a message is sent or received
between two or more people.
• Several channels can be used to send or receive the message, i.e
seeing, hearing, touching, smelling, & tasting.
• While selecting channels of communication, several factors must be
considered: availability of channel, purpose, suitability, types of
receivers, types of message, preference of sender & receivers,
communication skills of the sender, cost, etc.
• Classification of channels of communication:
• Visual channel: Facial expression, body language, posture, gestures,
pictures & written words, electronic mails, mass media, etc.
• Auditory channel: Spoken words, sounds, telephone or mobile
communications, delivering audio content (radio, voicemail), etc.
• Tactile channel: Touch sensations, therapeutic touch, etc.
• Combined channel: Audiovisual media, consoling a person with touch
& spoken words.
• Receiver:
• A receiver is an individual or a group of individuals intended to
receive, decode & interpret the message sent by the
sender/source of message.
• A receiver also known as decoder.
• He is expected to have the ability & skills to receive, decode &
interpret the message.
• Feedback:
• It is a return message sent by the receiver to the sender.
• It is most essential element of the communication process as it
shows that the receiver has understood the primary message sent
by the sender & the communication process is now consider
complete.
• A successful communication must be a two-way process where
the sender sends the message & receives feedback from the
receiver.
• These feedback could be verbal & nonverbal.
 MEANS OF COMMUNICATION
• There are three primary methods of
communication. These are written, verbal and
non verbal form of communication. The choice
as to which method to adopt would largely
depend upon the location of the sender and
receiver, ability, the nature of the message,
urgency with which the information is
required to be passed on and the cost involved
in passing or receiving the information.
• 1. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION:
• Written communication has great significance in today’s business
world. It is an innovative activity of the mind. Effective written
communication is essential for preparing worthy promotional
materials for business development. Speech came before writing
• CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD WRITTEN ABOUT COMMUNICATION
• Easy language: Easy language should be used in written
communication. The sentences of written communication must be
understandable to the reader.
• Structure: Definite structure must be followed in drafting any written
document. Every written form has its own structure.
• Accurate and precise: A well written document must be accurate and
precise. Written communication insists on greater accuracy and
precision.
• Direct speech: Direct speech should be used in written
communication. Indirect and passive sentences must be avoided.
• Paragraph design: A good written communication bears a paragraph
design. Paragraphing is also important to clear communication.
• 2. ORAL COMMUNICATION
• Oral communication implies communication through mouth. It includes
individuals
• conversing with each other, be it direct conversation or telephonic
conversation.
• Speeches, presentations, discussions are all forms of oral
communication.
• Oral communication is generally recommended when the
communication matter is of temporary kind or where a direct interaction
is required. Face to face communication (meetings, lectures,
conferences, interviews, etc.) is significant so as to build a rapport and
trust.
• There is high level of understanding and transparency in oral
communication as it is interpersonal.
• There is no element of rigidity in oral communication.
• There is flexibility for allowing changes in the decisions previously taken.
• The feedback is spontaneous in case of oral communication. Thus,
decisions can be made quickly without any delay.
• PRINCIPLES OF ORAL COMMUNICATION
• The principles of oral communication are discussed below:
• 1. Clear pronunciation: Clear pronunciation of message sender in the
main factor or oral communication. If it is not clear, the goal of the
message may not be achieved.
• 2. Preparation: Before communicating orally the speaker should take
preparation both physically are mentally.
• 3. Unity and integration: The unity an integration of the speech of the
message sender is a must for successful oral communication.
• 4. Precision: Precision is needed to make oral communication effective.
The meaning of the words must be specific.
• 5. Natural voice: The speaker’s must not be fluctuated at the time of
oral communication. On the other hand artificial voice must be avoided.
• 6. Planning: Organized plan is a must for effective oral communication.
The speaker should take proper plan for delivering speech.
• 7. Simplicity: The speaker should use simple an understandable words
in oral communication. It should be easy and simple.
• 8. Legality: The speaker’s speech should be legal and logical at the time
of oral communication
• 3. NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION:
• The Non-Verbal Communication is the process of conveying meaning
without the use of words either written or spoken. In other words, any
communication made between two or more persons through the use of
facial expressions, hand movements, body language, postures, and
gestures is called as non-verbal communication.
• Types of Nonverbal Communication Judee Burgoon (1994) has identified
seven different nonverbal
• 1. Kinesics or body movements including facial expressions and eye
contact ;
• 2. Vocalics or paralanguage that includes volume, rate, pitch, and timbre;
• 3. Personal appearance;
• 4. Our physical environment and the artifacts or objects that compose it;
• 5. Proxemics or personal space;
• 6. Haptics or touch .
• 7. Chronemics or time. To this list, we would add signs
 TYPES OF COMMUNICATION
• 1.FORMAL COMMUNICATION Formal communication
is communication structured on the basis of hierarchy,
authority & accountability.
• Types of Formal Communication:
• UPWARD COMMUNICATION: Sending of message
from subordinates to superior
• DOWNWARD COMMUNICATION It is the flow of
information from superior to subordinate in the
organizational hierarchy.
• HORIZONTAL COMMUNICATION It refers to the
horizontal flow of message among colleagues.
• 2. INFORMAL COMMUNICATION Informal
communication is relatively less structured &
spontaneous communication arising out of day to day
routine & meetings among people.
• INTER-PERSONAL COMMUNICATION Interpersonal
communication is communication among two or more
persons. It is an important element of the organization.
• INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION It is internal
dialogue occuring within the mind of an individual. It
may be clear or confused depending upon the
individual’s state of mind.
BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

• When a communication is made by a sender, it must be

received correctly by the receiver. Message must be
interpreted by the receiver as has been intended by the
sender. There are various problems like the message
doesnot reach the receiver, problem of encoding and
decoding, faulty selection of channel, wrong language
are the interpretation of the message. The list can be
long and unending. These problems are called noise in
communication. These problems can be classified as
various barriers such as physical distance, noise, attitude
and sentiments of sender and receiver.
• 1. physical barriers:
• Physical barriers are often due to the nature of
the environment.
• Physical Organizational Barrier includes
internal and external environment like : –
• Poor timing
• Choice of channel
• Inadequate information
• Organizational structure
• Information overload
• 2. Interpersonal barriers: Affective communication
largely depends upon the sender and receiver and
their personal bent of mind, commitment to
organizational effectiveness and the relationship
they enjoy. Some of the important interpersonal
barriers are discussed below:
• A) Filtration: it is process when sender deliberately
wants to withholds information from reaching the
receiver. It is done by manipulating the information
either because the sender believes that all the
information is not required or that receiver is better
of not knowing certain aspects of the information.
• B) Perception: perceptual process that operate in a
situation may heavily influence the communication
process related to receiving the information from the
environment and interpreting and giving meaning to such
information. It is human tendency to hear what he wants
to hear and ignore the information that conflict with his
thought process.
• C) Semantic barriers: it refers to the interpretation of
words, abbreviations and symbols used by the sender
and perceived by the receiver. If a receiver is likely to
misunderstand symbol of dollar($) , it is better that
“dollar” is written in the script. Universally accepted
symbols should generally be used in the written
communication.
• D) power position: Authority, power and
status of an individual in an organization affect
communication win people interacting at
various levels of hierarchy. While authority
makes communication more authentic but
may create social distance and therefore
restrict communication due to gap that may
be created.
• E) CULTURAL BARRIER
• Cultures provide people ways of thinking-- ways of seeing, hearing, and
interpreting the world.
• Similar words can mean different things to people from different
cultures, even when they talk the "same" language.
• FACTORS CAUSING CULTURAL BARRIER
• Diversified cultural background.
• Language and Accent.
• Behavior and Nature.
• Religion.
• HOW TO OVERCOME ?
• Cross culture environment.
• Have a thorough knowledge of your counterpart’s culture background.
• Conduct effective communication workshop.
• Work in groups and run frequent meeting
• F) Sender credibility: if a sender credibility is
high, the receiver will take and interpret
message favourably. conversely, if sender is
not trusted receiver may try and interpret
message wrongly by deliberately giving hidden
meaning to various words and may distort the
complete message. The communication of an
expert is generally taken seriously and acted
upon favourably. Emotions also play an
important role in communication.
STRATEGIES TO IMPROVE THE FOLLOW OF
COMMUNICATION
• Effective communication skills are
fundamental to success in many aspects of life.
• Many jobs require strong communication skills
and socially peoplewith improved communication skills us
ually enjoy better
interpersonal relationships with friends and family.
• Effective communication is a key interpersonal
skill and by learning how we
can improve our communication has many benefits.
• Therefore , there is need to improve
communication skills.
 7c’s of effective communication
• 1. Completeness
• 2. Conciseness
• 3. Consideration
• 4. Clarity
• 5. Concreteness
• 6. Courtesy
• 7. Correctness.
• WAYS OF IMPROVING COMMUNICATION SKILLS
• LISTENING “If we were supposed to talk more than listen, we
would have been given two mouths and one ear.” Mark Twain
• LISTENING : Listening is not the same as hearing; learn to listen
not only to the words being spoken but how they are being
spoken and the non-verbal messages sent with them.
• Use the technique of clarification and reflection to confirm
what the other has said and avoid any confusion.
• Try not to think about what to say next whilst listening;
instead clear your mind and focus on the message being
received.
• Finally, the best thing you can do to improve your
communication skills is to learn to really listen—to pay
attention and let the other person talk without interrupting.
• It’s hard work, we know, but “A good conversation is a bunch
of words elegantly connected with listening.”
• BODY LANGUAGE
• Body language is a huge part of how we communicate with
other people.
• If reading body language doesn't come naturally to you, or if
you'd simply like to get better at it, there's a huge body of
work that details what the body is really saying.
• EMPATHISE
• Empathy is trying to see things from the point-of-view of
others.
• When communicating with others, try not to be
judgemental or biased by preconceived ideas or beliefs -
instead view situations and responses from the other
person’s perspective.
• Stay in tune with your own emotions to help enable you to
understand the emotions of others.
 UNNECESSARY FILLERS
• Um’s and ah’s do little to improve your speech
or everyday conversations. Cut them out to be
more persuasive and feel or appear more
confident.
• One way is to start keeping track of when you
say words like “um” or “like.”
• You could also try taking your hands out of
your pockets or simply relaxing and pausing
before you speak.
 SPEAKING SPEED
• Nobody will hold it against you if you speak
more slowly and clearly.
• Great speakers do the same to get their
message across.
• Selecting your words carefully may also be
seen as a sign of respect towards your
audience.
• Shows that you want to give them the best
possible answer.
• TIME TO THINK • Give yourself time to think. • You may
be worried that the people you’re talking to are impatient
and would like you to say what you want as quickly as
possible. • First of all, it may not be true – people often
prefer a well-thought-out answer to a rushed one. • So
just relax and before answering take time to think.
• HUMOUR • Laughing releases endorphins that can help
relieve stress and anxiety; most people like to laugh and
will feel drawn to somebody who can make them laugh. •
Don’t be afraid to be funny or clever, but do ensure your
humour is appropriate to the situation. • Use your sense
of humour to break the ice, to lower barriers and gain the
affection of others.
• POSITIVE ATTITUDE AND SMILE
• Few people want to be around someone who is frequently
miserable. Do your best to be friendly, upbeat and positive
with other people.
• Maintain a positive, cheerful attitude to life: when things do
not go to plan, stay optimistic and learn from your mistakes.
• If you smile often and stay cheerful, people are more likely
to respond positively to you.
• MINIMISE STRESS
• Some communication scenarios are, by their nature,
stressful.
• Stress can however be a major barrier to effective
communication, all parties should try to remain calm and
focused.
 Decision Making
• What is Decision?
• A decision can be defined as: “a course of action purposely chosen
from a set of alternatives to achieve organizational or managerial
objectives or goals”.
• What is Decision Making?
• “the process of deciding about something important, especially in
a group of people or in an organization” Oxford Advanced
Learner’s Dictionary
• “Decision making involves the selection of a course of action from
among two or more possible alternatives in order to arrive at a
solution for a given problem” Trewatha & Newport
• As evidenced by the foregone definitions, decision making
process is: “a consultative affair done by a comity of professionals
to drive better functioning of any organization
 Why Decision Making?
• Decision making is a continuous and dynamic activity that pervades all
other activities pertaining to the organization.
• No decision comes as end in itself, since it may evolve new problems to
solve.
• When one problem is solved another arises and so on, such that
decision making process, as said earlier, is a continuous and dynamic.
• During decision making process, intellectual minds are involved and this
requires solid scientific knowledge coupled with skills and experience in
addition to mental maturity.
• Decision making process can be regarded as check and balance system
that keeps the organization growing both in vertical and linear directions.
• Decision making process is seeking goals. – These goals are pre-set
business objectives, company missions and vision.
• To achieve these goals, company may face lot of obstacles in
administrative, operational, marketing wings and operational domains. –
Such problems are solved out through comprehensive decision making
process.
 Steps of Decision Making
• A lot of time is consumed while decisions are taken.
• In a management setting, decision cannot be taken
abruptly, it should follow the steps such as;
• 1. Defining the problem
• 2. Gathering information and collecting data
• 3. Developing and weighing the options
• 4. Choosing best possible option
• 5. Plan and execute
• 6. Take follow up action
 The Significance of Decision Making
• Decision making is the one truly distinctive
characteristic of managers.
• Decisions made by top managers commit the total
organization toward particular courses of action.
• Decisions made by lower levels of management
implement the strategic decisions of top managers
in the operating areas of the organization.
• Decisions invariably involve organizational change
and the commitment of scarce resources.
 Categories of Decisions
• Programmed Decisions:
• A decision that is repetitive and routine
• A definite method for its solution can be
established
• Does not have to be treated a new each time it
occurs
• Procedures are often already laid out
• Examples: pricing standard customer orders,
determining billing dates, recording office supplies
etc.
• Non-programmed Decisions:
• A decision that is novel (new or unique) or Ill
structured
• No established methods exist, because it has never
occurred before or because
• It is too complex
• Are “tough” decisions that involve risk and uncertainty
and
• call for entrepreneurial abilities
• Such decisions draw heavily on the analytical abilities
of the manager
• Examples: Moving into a new market, investing in a
new unproven technology, changing strategic direction
 GROUP DECISIONS
• Group decision making is a type of
participatory process in which multiple
individuals acting collectively, analyze
problems or situations, consider and evaluate
alternative courses of action, and select from
among the alternatives a solution or solutions.
 GROUP DECISION MAKING
• Decision making is the process whereby final but best
choice is made among the available alternatives in order to
solve a particular problem.
• Group Decision-Making (also known as Collaborative
decision making) is a participatory process in which
individuals collectively make a choice from the alternatives
before them.
• Groups can develop more ideas and more alternative
solutions than individuals.
• Groups can evaluate ideas better than Individuals
 TECHNIQUES
• Brainstorming
• Nominal group technique
• Delphi method
• Electronic meeting
• Multi- voting
• BRAINSTORMING
• It is a combination of group problem-solving
and discussions. It works on the belief that the
more the number of ideas, greater the
possibility of arriving at a solution to the
problem that is acceptable to all.
• ELECTRONIC MEETING
• The decision-making process takes place
virtually with the help of technology.
• For example, we can have a Skype call with the
client.
• DELPHI METHOD
• In this method of decision-making, the
facilitator allows team members to
individually brainstorm and submit their ideas
“anonymously”. Other team members do not
know the owner of the ideas. The facilitator
then collects all the inputs and circulates them
among others for modifying or improving
them. This process continues until a final
decision is made.
• DELPHI follows these steps:
• Select a group of individuals who possess expertise in a
given problem area
• Survey the experts for their opinions via a mailed
questionnaire.
• Analyse and distil the experts' responses.
• Mail the summarised results of the survey to the experts
and request that they respond once again to a
questionnaire.
• If one expert's opinion sharply differs from the rest, he or
she may be asked to provide a rationale.
• process is repeated several times, the experts usually
achieve a consensus
• MULTI-VOTING
• It starts with a round of voting where an individual casts
his vote for the shortlisted options. Each individual can cast
one vote at a time. The options with the maximum number
of votes are carried to the next round. This process is
repeated until a clear winning option is obtained.
• NOMINAL GROUP TECHNIQUE
• In a nominal group technique, the team divides itself into
smaller groups and generates ideas. Possible options are
noted down in writing and the team members further
discuss these to narrow down the possible choices they
would like to accept. Team members then discuss and vote
on the best possible choice. The choice that receives the
maximum votes is accepted as the group decision.
• NGT follows these steps:
• 7-10 individuals are brought together to participate in
a structured exercise that includes the following steps:
• Team members are presented with a problem,
challenge or issue
• Individual team members silently and independently
write down their ideas about how to tackle the
problem.
• Each team member (one at a time, in round-robin
fashion) presents an idea to the group.
• Individuals silently and independently vote on each
idea.
 Creativity
• Creativity means creating something new. In the context of
business, it means creation of new ideas, new method or
new product/service.
• Creativity is the “cognitive process of developing an idea,
concept, commodity, or discovery that is viewed as novel by
its creator or a target audience.” — Max H. Bazerman.
• Creativity in decision making is the generation of a new idea
or unique approach that solves a particular problem.
• Organizations should create an environment that supports
& encourages Creativity.
 CLIMATE FOR CREATIVITY
• Recognize the need for change
• Accept the need for change.
• Consider every change as an opportunity from which
should be benefitted from.
• Encourage new ideas
• Always welcome new ideas.
• Listening to new ideas and implementing profitable
ones encourages creative climate. 
• Interaction
• Interaction with people within and outside the
organization helps in generating new ideas.
• Tolerate Failure
• Identify the cause for failure and modify
them.
• Motivate them to come up with new ideas.
• Clear Objectives
• Define the purpose for creativity
• It optimizes the use of time, energy and
money
 PROCESS OF CREATIVITY IN DECISION
MAKING
• 1 SENSING
• 2 PREPARATION
• 3 INCUBATION
• 4 ILLUMINATION
• 5 VERIFICATION
• SENSING (Problem Finding)
• Identifies the problem
• Analyze its importance
• Curious to solve the problem
• Curiosity leads to development of ideas.
• PREPARATION
• Collects information and formulate hypothesis
• May refer to past experiences, researches & Innovations.
• INCUBATION
• Moves from conscious deliberation to sub-conscious deliberation.
• Makes decisions in sub-conscious mind.
• Generates new ideas.
• ILLUMINATION
• List out all possible solutions.
• Some are rejected and some are accepted for further analysis.
• VERIFICATION
• Testing the ideas.
• If found feasible, applying to solve the problem.
 STRESS
• Definition
• Stress may be defined as "a state of psychological and / or
physiological imbalance resulting from the disparity between
situational demand and the individuals ability and / or motivation
to meet those demands.
• "Stress is the body’s reaction to a change that requires a physical,
mental or emotional adjustment or response. It can be caused by
both good and bad experiences. When people feel stressed by
something going on around them, their bodies react by releasing
chemicals into the blood. These chemicals give people more
energy and strength, which can be a good thing if their stress is
caused by physical danger. But this can also be a bad thing, if
their stress is in response to something emotional and there is no
outlet for this extra energy and strength.
• Stress can be positive or negative. Stress can be
positive when the situation offers an opportunity
for a person to gain something. It acts as a
motivator for peak performance. Stress can be
negative when a person faces social, physical,
organizational and emotional problems.
• Stress can cause headaches, eating disorder,
allergies, insomnia, backaches, frequent cold and
fatigue to diseases such as hypertension, asthma,
diabetes, heart ailments and even cancer.
 LEVELS OF STRESS
• Stress can be both positive and negative. It is our response to stress
—how we manage stress—that makes a difference in terms of how
it affects us.
• Two types of Levels:
• EUSTRESS :
• Stress resulting from pleasant events or conditions is called
eustress.
• Eustress can be defined as a pleasant or curative stress. We cant
always avoid stress, in fact, sometimes we dont want to. Often, it is
controlled stress that gives us our competitive edge in performance
related activities like athletics, giving a speech, or acting.
• DISTRESS:
• Stress resulting from unpleasant events or conditions is called
distress.
• Bad stress:
• If a stimulus we react to is negative, we are actually feeling “distress”
though we label it as stress.
• e. g. death of a close friend.
• Acute stress:
• Acute stress is usually for short time and may be due to work
pressure, meeting deadlines pressure or minor accident, over
exertion, increased physical activity, searching something but you
misplaced it, or similar things.
• Chronic stress :
• Chronic stress is a prolonged stress that exists for weeks, months, or
even years. This stress is due to poverty, broken or stressed families
and marriages, chronic illness and successive failures in life. People
suffering from this type of stress get used to it and may even not
realize that they are under chronic stress. It is very harmful to their
health.
 POTENTIAL SOURCES OF STRESS
• The factors that cause stress are called
STRESSORS which may be grouped under two
headings, namely:
• 1. Organizational Stressors, and
• 2. Individual Stressors.
• These are discussed below in detail.
 ORGANIZATIONAL STRESSORS
• Organizational stressors are various factors in the work
place that can cause stress. The general sets of
organizational stressors are as follows:
• 1) Organisational Climate: A high pressure environment
that places chronic work demands on employees fuels the
stress response.
• 2) Organisational Structure: It defines the level of
differentiation, the degree of rules and regulations and
where decisions are made. Excessive rules and lack of
participation in decisions that affect an employee are
examples of structural variables that might be potential
stressors.
• 3) Organisational Leadership: Represents the managerial style
of the organisation’s senior executives. Some chief executive
officers create a culture characterised by tension, fear and
anxiety.
• 4) Organisational Changes: When changes occur, people have
to adapt to those changes and this may cause stress. Stress is
higher when changes are major or unusual like transfer or
adaption of new technology.
• 5) Occupational Demands: Some jobs are more stressful than
others. Jobs that involve risk and danger are more stressful.
Research findings indicate that jobs that are more stressful
usually requires constant monitoring of equipments and
devices, unpleasant physical conditions, making decisions, etc.
• 6) Work Overload: Excessive work load leads to stress as it
puts a person under tremendous pressure.
• Work overload may take two different forms :-
• Qualitative work overload implies performing a job that is
complicated or beyond the employees capacity.
• Quantitative work overload arises when number of activities to
be performed in the prescribed time is many.
• 7) Work Under load: In this case, very little work or too simple
work is expected on the part of the employee. Doing less work or
jobs of routine and simple nature would lead to monotony and
boredom, which can lead to stress.
• 8) Working Conditions: Employees may be subject to poor
working conditions. It would include poor lighting and
ventilations, unhygienic sanitation facilities, excessive noise and
dust, presence of toxic gases and fumes, inadequate safety
measures, etc. All these unpleasant conditions create
physiological and psychological imbalance in humans thereby
causing stress.
 INDIVIDUAL STRESSORS
• 1) Career Changes: When a person suddenly switches over a new
job, he is under stress to shoulder new responsibilities properly.
Under promotion, over promotion, demotion and transfers can
also cause stress.
• 2) Career Concern : If an employee feels that he is very much
behind in corporate ladder, then he may experience stress and if
he feels that there are no opportunities for self-growth he may
experience stress. Hence unfulfilled career expectations are a
major source of stress.
• 3) Role Ambiguity: It occurs when the person does not known
what he is supposed to do on the job. His tasks and
responsibilities are not clear. The employee is not sure what he is
expected to do. This creates confusion in the minds of the worker
and results in stress.
• 4) Role Conflict: It takes place when different people have
different expectations from a person performing a particular
role. It can also occur if the job is not as per the expectation
or when a job demands a certain type of behaviour that is
against the persons moral values.
• 5) Role Overload: Stress may occur to those individuals who
work in different shifts. Employees may be expected to work
in day shift for some days and then in the night shift. This may
create problems in adjusting to the shift timings, and it can
affect not only personal life but also family life of the
employee.
• 6) Frustration: Frustration is another cause of stress.
Frustration arises when goal directed behaviour is blocked.
Management should attempt to remove barriers and help the
employees to reach their goals.
• 7) Life Changes: Life changes can bring stress to a person.
Life changes can be slow or sudden. Slow life changes
include getting older and sudden life changes include death
or accident of a loved one. Sudden life changes are highly
stressful and very difficult to cope.
• 8) Personality: People are broadly classified as Type A and
Type B.
• Feels guilty while relaxing.
• Gets irritated by minor mistakes of self and others.
• Feels impatient and dislikes waiting.
• Does several things at one time.
• While the Type B people are exactly opposite and hence
are less affected by stress due to above mentioned factors.
 CONFLICT
• INTRODUCTION:
• In present corporate environment conflict has
become very common phenomenon. Conflict is
bad as it has adverse effects on the individual
performance. If conflict is beyond the control it
takes a destructive dimension.
• When employees do not cope up with the
conflict situation, there is an increased
absenteeism and exit of employees. It can be so
disastrous that can lead to demise of organization.
 DEFINITIONS
• Conflict can be defined as the “ process that begins
when one party perceives that another party has
negatively affected something that the first party cares
about.”
• According to Joe Kelly , “ Conflict is defined as opposition
or dispute between persons, groups or ideas ”.
• According to Follett,“ Conflict is the appearance of
difference, difference of opinions, of interests.”
• Austin et al defines conflict “as a disagreement between
two or more individuals or groups, with each individual
or group trying to gain acceptance of its views or
objective over others.
 Views on conflict
• Traditional view (1930-1940): The early approach to conflict
assumed that all conflict was bad. Conflict was viewed
negatively, and it was used with such terms as violence,
destruction.
• Human Relations view (1940-1970) : The human relations
position argued that conflict was a natural occurrence in all
groups and organizations. Since conflict was inevitable(which
cannot be avoided) it is accepted and there are even times
when conflict may benefit a group’s performance.
• Modern View: This view is based on the belief that conflict is
not only a positive force in a group but is also necessary for a
group to perform effectively. This approach encourages group
leaders to maintain an ongoing minimum level of conflict –
enough to keep the group viable, self-critical and creative.
 Types of Conflict
• It is quite evident that to say that conflict is all good or bad is
inappropriate Whether a conflict is good or bad depends on the
type of conflict. There are many types of conflict
• Functional or Constructive Conflict:
• works toward the goals of an organization or group
• Constructive
• Increase information & ideas
• Encourages innovative thinking
• Dysfunctional/Destructive Conflict: blocks an organization or
group from reaching its goals
• Tension, anxiety, stress
• Drives out low conflict tolerant people
• Reduce trust
• Reduce information
• Task conflict - task conflict occurs when two
parties are unable to move forward on a task
due to differing needs, behaviors or attitudes.
It can be conflict over organizational policies
and procedures, distribution of resources or
the method or means of completing a task
• Relationship conflict - Relationship conflict is
a conflict resulting from either personality
clashes or negative emotional interactions
between two or more people.
 Intra Individual Conflict
• This is an Internal Conflict that involves the struggle
between the character and his / her opinion.
• This has to do with individuals having to make
choices between wrong and right or even with
overcoming emotions or mixed feelings.
• EXAMPLE
• A father or mother tries to make a decision whether
he/ she is to stay with the family or take a job in
another place or country to get a better life for the
family.
TYPES OF INTRA-INDIVIDUAL CONFLICT
• value conflict: It occurs when individuals or groups of
people hold strong personal beliefs that are in disagreement
within themselves or in disagreement with the institution's/
organization's values. These may include religious
differences, cultural differences or differences in upbringing.
• Decision making: problem solving is one of the important
jobs every individual has to undertake in work environment.
Every problem has various courses open . At times it is
difficult for a person to select an appropriate course of
action. This situation causes conflict within the individual.
Inter Individual Conflict /External Conflict
• Inter Individual Conflict is a character (man) struggles against an
outside force, such as nature, a physical obstacles or another
character.
• CHARACTER VS. CHARACTER • A character struggling against
another character mental or physical. Example: Two persons
fighting.
• CHARACTER (MAN) VS. NATURE: A character struggling with the
forces or elements of nature ( natural disaster ,Flood etc.) that is
beyond his/ her control but the struggle is usually done for survival.
• CHARACTER (MAN) VS. SOCIETY The struggle between a character
or a group of characters fighting against the rules or laws that
govern the society in which he/ she lives. Example: Religion and
Politics
 GROUP CONFLICT
• Intra Group Conflict (With in the group): Intra group conflict refers
to disputes among some or all of a group’s members, which often
affect the group’s performance. The conflict may arise when social
changes are incorporated in the group. When group faces new
problems and when values are changed due to change in social
environment
• Inter group Conflicts (Between groups) : conflicts between
different groups, sections and departments are called inter-group
conflict. For example, conflict between production and sales
departments over the quality being produced and the customer
requirements. This conflict causes due to factors inherent to the
organizational structure like independence, inconsistency in various
policy matter, variance on promotion criteria, reward system and
different standards being adopted for different sub-units and
departments.
 ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT
• Intra Organizational Conflict:
• The conflict which arises with in various levels
and departments of organization. Various
kinds are:
• I. Horizontal Conflict
• II. Vertical Conflict
• III. Line and staff conflict
• IV. Role conflict
• HORIZONTAL CONFLICT: it is caused due to incompatibility of
goals, sharing limited resources and difference in time orientation.
It leads to tension, misunderstanding and frustration on the part
of both the parties. This conflict relates to employees or group at
the same level.
• VERTICAL CONFLICT: It refers to conflicts that might takes place
between different levels of hierarchy. Conflicts between
subordinates and superior occur due to incompatibility. It is
generally caused because of differences in perception, value
system, goals that may be assigned and difference in individual
behaviour.
• LINE AND STAFF CONFLICT: this conflict has been traditional. Line
authority creates products and services and contribute directly
towards the generation of revenue. While staff authority assists
line authority and acts in advisory capacity. Staff authority have
tendency to dominate and disregard the efforts put in by line
authority managers.
• ROLE CONFLICT: A person in an organization has to perform
various roles. Conflict arises when roles assigned to him
have different expectation. Time management may cause
conflict. A person may be asked to take care of an
additional section in the absence of section head.
• INTER- ORGANIZATIONAL CONFLICT: Inter organizational
conflict takes place between two dependent organizations.
Conflict can take place between government organization,
unions and the operating industry. Government
organizations function to ensure that minimum standards
are followed by the organizations. Managers must try to
reduce the conflict by adopting positive approach and by
following strictly, the rules and regulations laid down by the
government agencies.
 The most common conflict occurred in
organization
• Lockouts.
• Strikes.
• Issues related with performance appraisals.
• Resistance to change.
• Conflicts related with emotions.
• Conflicts due to frustrations.
 TYPES OF CONFLICT
• Approach-approach conflict: occurs when you
must choose between two desirable outcomes.
• Avoidance-avoidance conflict: occurs when you
must choose between two unattractive outcomes.
• Approach-avoidance: exists when ONE event or
goal has both attractive and unattractive features.
• Multiple approach-avoidance conflicts: here you
must choose between two or more things, each
of which has both desirable and undesirable
features.
 Approach-approach conflict
• In this type of conflict individual will have two desires with
positive valence which are equally powerful. For example,
a person has two attractive job offers and he has to choose
any one of them- tension arises.
• Such conflicts are not so harmful, because after selecting
one, the other one automatically subsides or loses its
importance to him. But in some situation choice will be
very difficult. For example, a girl has to choose either
loving parents or a boy friend for inter-caste marriage.
Such cases are like ‘you cannot have the cake and eat it
too’.
• The individual will be psychologically torn and may lose
equilibrium. This type of conflict is diagrammatically
represented in Figure.
 Avoidance-avoidance conflict
• This conflict involves two goals with negative valence. At times the individual
is forced to choose one among two negative goals. In such conflicts, both are
unwanted goals, but he cannot keep quiet without opting also. For example, a
woman must work at a job which she dislikes very much or else she has to
remain unemployed.
• Here the individual is caught between two repelling threats, fears or
situations. When she cannot choose either of them she may try to escape
from the field itself. But the consequences of the escape may also be harmful.
For example, a person who cannot convince the mother or the wife may
resort to Alcohol consumption which is otherwise dangerous or some people
may even commit suicide. Such type of conflict is diagrammatically
represented in Figure
• In the event of such conflicts when there is no way to escape- some people
may find a way to reduce their tension by developing ‘amnesia’ or defence
mechanisms like regression or fantasy.
 Approach-avoidance conflict
• This is also a most complex conflict and very difficult to resolve.
Because in this type of conflict a person is both attracted and
repelled by the same goal object. Here the goal object will have
both positive and negative valences.
• The positive valence attracts the person, but as he approaches, the
negative valence repels him back. Attraction of the goal and
inability to approach it leads to frustration and tension.
• For example, a person is approaching to accept a job offer, because
the salary is attractive- but at the same time he is repelled back as
the job is very risky. A man wants to marry to lead a family life, but
does not want the responsibilities of family life. This type of conflict
is diagrammatically represented in Figure.
Multiple approach-avoidance conflict
• Some of the situations in life we come across will involve both
positive and negative valences of multiple nature. Suppose a woman is
engaged to be married. The marriage to her has positive valences like-
providing security to life and marrying a person whom she loves very
much.
• Suppose, on the other hand, if the marriage is repellent to her
because she has to quit her attractive job and salary, recognition
which makes her dependent, the situation builds up tension in her.
• The resolution of this conflict depends upon the sum total of both
valences. If the sum total of attractive valence takes upper hand, she
will quit the job and go for marriage; otherwise she may reject
marriage and continue the job if the sum total of negative valence is
powerful. This type of conflict is shown diagrammatically in Figure
 Stress Management
• STRATEGIES TO COPEUP WITH STRESS
• Strategy #1 : Avoid unnecessary stress
• Learn how to say “no”
• Avoid people who stress you out
• Take control of your environment –
• Avoid hot-button topics –politics
• Prepare down your to-do list
• Strategy #2 : Alter the situation
• Express your feelings instead of bottling them
up
• Be willing to compromise
• Be more assertive deal with problems head on
anticipate and prevent them
• Manage your time better
• Strategy #3:Adapt to the stressor
• Reframe problems view in positive aspects
• Look at the big picture – how important it is in long
run
• Adjust your standards, avoid perfectionism--- should
be good enough
• Focus on the positive —when stress arrive – think a
moment on the positive things- your +ve qualities ---
gifts—
• Eliminate words such as "always," "never," "should,"
and "must." These are tell-tale marks of self-defeating
thoughts.
• Strategy #4: Accept the things you can’t
Change
• Don’t try to control the uncontrollable
• Look for the upside- look at the opportunities
• Share your feelings
• Learn to forgive
• Strategy #5:Make time for fun and Relaxation
• Set aside relaxation time.
• Connect with others
• Do something you enjoy every day
• Keep your sense of humour
• Strategy #6: Adopt a healthy lifestyle
• Exercise regularly
• Eat a healthy diet
• Reduce caffeine and sugar
• Avoid alcohol, cigarettes, and drugs.
• Get enough sleep
 The effects of stress and intra individual
conflict
• Physical problems due to stress and conflict
• Psychological problems due to stress and
conflict
• Behavioral problems due to stress and conflict
STRATEGIES TO COPE UP WITH CONFLICT
• Coping is simply an effort to solve personal and interpersonal
problems, and seeking to master, minimize or tolerate stress or
conflict.
• INDIVIDUAL COPING STRATEGY
• The first step in managing a conflict is individual coping. An
individual needs to manage the conflicts or differences inside him
to be able to come up to an agreement with the people around
him. Individual coping include :
• Exercise
• Relaxation
• Behavioral Self-Control
• Cognitive Therapy
• Networking
• ORGANISATIONAL COPING STRATEGIES
• In an organization there are various types of personalities,
Aggressive, Assertive and Submissive. Every personality has
a different opinion which gives rise to conflicts. To cope with
organizational conflicts, strategies used should be:
• Assess positive and negative personality traits of people
involved.
• Taking over control by the seniors if conflicts are at lower
level managements. If seniors are involved they have to
come up to a agreement between them as adverse effects
will be felt over the entire organization.
• Confront whosoever is involved directly. A joint outcome is
better than attaining losses.
• Brainstorming sessions to be conducted regularly.
 OTHER COPING STRATEGIES
• Diagnosis : Diagnose the nature of the conflict so that
its easy to find a solution for it.
• Initiation : Taking the initiative to influence someone to
change their behavior that may be causing the conflict.
• Listening : An important strategy to reduce conflicts is
the ability to listen and understand the other persons
point of view.
• Avoidance : Stay away from conflict.
• Compromise : Willingness to settle a conflict with an
agreement that all parties involved will accept willingly.