MODULE 1 : SENSORS

Define Sensors
Sensors are devices which “read” a physical
stimulus, and then convert that reading into an
electrical signal output. (heat, light, sound,
weight, attraction )
Main basic components of a sensor
1. Receptor : Receptor is a chemical or biological
recognition element which is capable of interaction with
analyte specifically and selectively. It produces a signal
corresponds to interaction in the form of change in
potential, conductivity, current, mass, heat, pH, colour
 ……….basic components of a sensor
2. Transducer : convert the signal created by the receptor
– analyte interaction into a readable value or
measureable form physical quantity.
3. Actuator : Converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy
4. Electrical signal and display
The electronic systems analyze the signal given by the
transducer, helps in signal amplification and converts
the signals are then displayed. Signal can be displayed
in various forms such as numeric value, graph, image
……….basic components of a sensor
 Electrochemical sensors
Definition : Sensors which convert the effect of electrochemical
reaction between analyte and electrode surface into a useful
signal are known as electrochemical sensors.
Electrochemical sensors are made up of three essential
components: a receptor that binds the sample, the sample or
analyte, and a transducer to convert the reaction into a
measurable electrical signal
They are divided into several types
• Potentiometric (measure voltage)
• Amperometric (measure current)
• Conductometric (measure conductivity)
 Construction and working Potentiometric sensor

The main components of an electrochemical sensor are working

electrode, counter electrode, and reference electrode.
Electrochemical sensing always requires a closed circuit
The fundamental concepts in the detection of analysts by
electrochemical sensors involve the measurement of electric
current generated by chemical reactions in the electrochemical
system.
 Application of electrochemical sensors
 They are used in determine important molecules or
biomarkers that are used for the diagnosis of diseases
and disorders.
 They are used for the monitoring of toxic levels of
different substances in food quality
 The biosensor application areas of these sensors
extend to medical and biomedical applications, process
control, bioreactors, quality control, agriculture,
bacterial and viral diagnosis
 The electrochemical oxygen sensor is used for
detection of dissolved oxygen in water
 Construction and working of Conductometric Sensors
• based on the measurement of changes in electrolytic
conductance of solution.
• based on measurement of specific conductance of an analyte
and it can be applied for detection of both electroactive and
electroinactive species
Principle
 The basic principle…. detection involves a reaction that can
change the concentration of ionic species.
 This reaction leads to changes in electrical conductivity or
current flow.
 The ions or electrons produces during an electrochemical
reaction changes the conductivity or resistivity of the solution.
 Conductance of a solution is based on the concentration
(number) and mobility of ions in solution
 ………Construction

Applications
 used in enzyme catalysis to determine analyte
concentration and enzyme activity and selectivity.
 Screen-printed conductometric sensor with inter digital
gold electrodes used to detect polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) in water.
 Optical sensors
• Sensors based on the measurement of interaction of
electromagnetic radiation with the chemical species are called
as optical sensors
Principle : In an optical sensor, the optical signal arises from the
interaction of the analyte with an incident electromagnetic
radiation. The interaction could result in absorption, emission,
scattering or reflection of light
Advantages
• These are available in small sizes with less weight.
• Sensitivity is high.
• Inert chemically.
• The dynamic range is wide.
• It is capable to monitor a wide range of physical and chemical
parameters.
 …….construction of optical sensors
•
 ………applications of optical sensors
 Optical sensors are used in smartphones
 Optical sensors are used in smart watches to measure the
heartbeat of the person.
 Optical sensors are available in the energy field f
 Optical sensors are used as ambient light sensors in
mobiles.
 Optical sensors are used in biomedical applications for
breath analysis and heart rate monitoring.
 Optical sensors are used as water level indicators.
 An optical sensor is used in the liquid level indicators.
 Optical sensor is used in imaging, remote sensing satellite
 Thermometric sensor
• Thermometric sensor is based on the measurement of
thermal changes during the interaction between analyte
and receptor.
• Thermal changes are converted to measurable change in
the temperature or potential.
• Main component of a thermometric sensor is a small
tubular catalytic reactor fitted with a temperature
transducer.
• Analyte (reactants) is fed in to the reactor.
• The wall of the reactor is coated with a catalyst or
enzyme capable of catalysing the reaction, liberating heat
energy.
 …………..thermometric sensor
• Heat liberated is quantified by means of a temperature
transducer.
• The change in temperature is converted to the output
voltage by transducer which is amplified and fed to the
data storage and processing unit.
• to convert change in temperature into an electric signal,
Applications of a thermometric sensor
• simple enzymatic reaction….. used determination of
metabolites, bioprocess monitoring,.
• Thermometric chemical sensors are used for
determination of combustible gases that react with
oxygen at the surface of a suitable catalyst.
Electrochemical Sensor for Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
 Electrochemical DO sensors
• It is also known as amperometric or Clark-type sensors,
measure dissolved oxygen concentration in water based
on electrical current produced.
• Polarographic and galvanic are types of electrochemical
DO sensors.
• The advantages of galvanic sensors over polarographic
sensors are that they don’t require outside voltage
source and warm-up time to operate and their
electrolyte can be used for a long time.
 Optical DO sensors,
• It is popularly known as luminescent DO sensors (LDO)
but some are called fluorescent sensors, measure
dissolved oxygen concentration in water based on the
quenching of luminescence in the presence of oxygen.
They can measure either the intensity or the lifetime of
the luminescence as oxygen affects both.
• The advantages of luminescence lifetime-based sensors
over luminescence intensity-based sensors are that they
are less susceptible to light source and detector drift,
changes in optical path, and drift due to dye degradation
or leaching. They exhibit long-term stability and maintain
their accuracy even with some photo degradation.
Construction and working of Electrochemical DO sensors

Components

Anode: Zn, Pd or any

other active metal
Cathode: Working
electrode - Ag
Electrolyte: KOH, NaOH
or any other inert
electrolyte
Membrane: Teflon
 …………..working
Working principle : When galvanic DO sensor is immersed in
water sample, oxygen that diffuses across the oxygen-
permeable membrane at a rate proportional to the
pressure of oxygen in the water is reduced and consumed
at the cathode Reactions

Cell reactions
Anode: 2Pb ￫ 2Pb2+ + 4e-
Cathode: O2 + 4e- + 2H2O ￫ 4OH-
Overall reaction: O2 + 2H2O + 2Pb ￫ 2Pb(OH)2
Construction and working of Optical DO Sensor
Components
1. Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
2. Photo detector
3. Luminescent dye
4. Membrane
 …………Optical DO Sensor
Dual LED referencing system: Blue LED emits light that
excites the dye causing its luminescence. The red LED
emits light but simply reflected back by the dye and does
not cause luminescence. It serves as a reference to ensure
accuracy.
Sensor film: A luminescent dye entrapped in a film. When
exposed to blue light, the dye becomes excited (electrons
gaining energy) and emits light as the electrons return to
their normal energy state.
Photo detector: Photodiode measures the intensity or
lifetime of luminescence from the dye.
 …………Optical DO Sensor
Working principle : When an optical DO sensor is immersed
in water sample, oxygen crosses the membrane and
interacts with the dye. This quenches or reduces the
intensity and lifetime of the dye’s luminescence, which is
measured by the photo detector and used to calculate
the DO concentration. The intensity and lifetime of
luminescence when dye is exposed to blue light is
inversely proportional to the amount of oxygen in the
sample.
 Electrochemical sensors for the detection of Pharmaceutical (diclofenac)

 Diclofenac with chemical name 2-(2-((2,6-

dichlorophenyl)amine)acetic acid, is one of the most
frequently prescribed non-steroidal anti-inflammatory
 Electrochemical detection occurs at the interface
between an analyte (Diclofenac) of interest and the
working electrode to which a potential is applied with
respect to the reference electrode
Different sensors are developed for the detection
 Potentiometric sensor (low sensitivity)
 Electrochemical sensor with unmodified carbon
electrode
 Electrochemical sensor with modified carbon electrode
 Bio-sensor
Construction and working ….
Working electrode: Carbon
Paste with MWCNT or
Graphene
Counter Electrode: Carbon
Paste with MWCNT or
Graphene
Reference Electrode:
Ag/AgCl
Process: Screen Printing
Technique on PVC

Substrate. Insulating ink

was printed on the
remaining PVC surface.
 working ….
 The electrochemical oxidation of diclofenac on
carbon-based sensor at pH 7.0 is reversible reaction.
 Oxidation of diclofenac occurs at carbon electrode
to release electrons, to form radical intermediates
species and followed by hydrolysis of radical
intermediate species.
 The products formed are 2,6- dichloro aniline and 2-
2(- hydroxyphenyl) acetic acid.
 Reactions on the electrode cause the current to
flow.
 The intensity of this current is a function of the
number of oxidized / reduced molecules.
 Reactions….

Diclofenac Radical intermediate species 2,6- dichloro aniline

Electrochemical sensors for the detection of Hydrocarbon
(1- Hydroxypyrene )
 Detection of hydrocarbon pollutants, mainly
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is
essential to monitor their toxicity and carcinogenic
risk
 After entering the body, some PAHs are
metabolized into 1-hydroxypyrene which is
commonly found in urine sample
 Electrochemical sensors are used for detection of
1-hydroxypyrene in urine sample.
 These sensors are fast, low cost and sensitive.
These sensors can be used for on the spot analysis.
 working ….
Working electrode: PAMAM/Cr-MOF/GO
Counter Electrode: PAMAM/Cr-MOF/GO
Reference Electrode: Ag/AgCl
Operating Voltage: +0.7 to −0.5 V

PAMAM: Dendrimer polyamidoamine

Cr-MOF: Chromium-centered Metal–Organic
framework
GO: Graphene Oxide
 Working (reactions )…….
Working : When this electrode is used to detect the sample
containing 1-Hydroxypyrene (water sample) the following
reactions takes place. At the electrode surface electro-oxidation
takes place to yield several hydroxylated species and then
hydroquinone by losing 2e− and 2H+

1-hydroxypyrene 1,2 dihydroxypyrene pyrene 1,2 quinone

 Electrochemical gas sensors for SOx and NOx
 The major contributors to traditional air
pollution are NOx, SOx, and H2S while NH3
and Volatile organic compounds are of
increasing concern recently
 Traditional air quality monitors based on mass
spec, infra-red spectroscopy and gas
chromatography are expensive and not
suitable for large scale deployment
 Electrochemical gas sensors provide a cheap
alternative option for widespread air quality
monitoring.
 Sensor for NOx

Chemiresistive sensors based on graphene and its derivatives

have been used to measure NOx
Chemiresistive sensors measure the change in resistance upon
exposure to analyte gases
detect toxic gases at very low concentrations
e-waste managaement