2.

0 DAMS AND APPURTENANCE

STRUCTURES

Sub-Topics:-
2.1 DAMS IN GENERAL
2.2 SPILLWAYS
2.3 OUTLET WORKS
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Definitions:-
• A “Dam” is a hydraulic structure constructed across a
river to store water on its upstream side.
• A “Reservoir” is a pool of water (or an artificial lake)
that is impounded on the upstream side of a barrier
(i.e. a dam) constructed across a river or stream.

Functions of Dams and Reservoirs: -

• A dam creates a reservoir and, both together, are
utilized to regulate runoff in any of the following two
main ways:-
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 Conservation: - involves storage of surplus water during periods of

excess (i.e. peak) flows intended for utilization later during periods
of deficient (i.e. scarce) flows. Such utilization may be irrigation,
hydro-electric power, water supply, navigation and recreation, etc.
 Flood Mitigation (or Flood Control or Flood Protection): - involves
storage and regulation of floods so as to minimize the flood peaks
to the areas to be protected downstream; and thus, releasing it
gradually later at a safe rate until when the flood recedes.
Note: - a flood control dam (or reservoir) differs from the conservation dam (or
reservoir) only in its need for large sluiceways capacity to permit rapid drawdown
before and after flood.
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(1.) EMBANKMENT (or NON-RIGID) DAMS

(a) Earthfill Dam:-

• This is made of locally available soils and gravels and the most
common types of dams used are of moderate heights.
• It is built in areas where foundation is not strong enough to bear
the weight of a concrete dam and where earth (soil) is more
easily available as a construction material compared to concrete
or stone or rock.

(b) Rockfill Dam:-

• This is an embankment which uses variable sizes of rocks (loose
rocks & boulders) to provide stability and an impervious
membrane to provide water-tightness. Next
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Cont’d
• This type has four fundamental parts:-
 Dumped rockfill at the downstream;
 Upstream rubble cushion of laid-up stone, bonding into the
dumped rock;
 Upstream impervious facing (or membrane) on rubble
cushion; and
 Upstream cut-off to check under-seepage.

(c) Earthfill-cum-Rockfill Dam:-

• This is a dam in which the usual derrick laid rockfill is
replaced by the hydraulic earthfill and no upstream
impervious membrane is provided.
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(2.) GRAVITY DAMS

• In this dam the external forces (e.g. Water
pressure, wave pressure, silt pressure, uplift
pressure, etc.) are resisted by the weight of the
dam itself.
It is most durable and solid; and requires very little
maintenance.
 It may be constructed of masonry or concrete with
ease on any dam site where there is a natural
foundation strong enough to bear the enormous
weight of the dam.
It may be either straight or curved in plan.
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(3.) ARCH DAM

• This dam is curved in plan, and carries a major part of its water
load horizontally to the abutment by an arch action;
 i.e. it makes use of horizontal arch action instead of self-weight to hold
back the water; and thus, the water load depends primarily on the
amount of curvature.
• The balance of the water load is transferred to the foundation
by cantilever action.
• So weight of arch dams does not assist materially in the
resistance of external loads; and thus, uplift on the base is not
an important design factor.
• The thrust developed by the water load carried by arch action
requires strong side walls of “canyon”.
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N.B. - A “Canyon” is a narrow valley with very steep sides (often with a
river at the bottom) to resist arch forces.
The arch dam is best suited at sites where the dam must be
“extremely high and narrow”
(4.) BUTRESS DAM
• This dam type consists of a number of buttresses (or piers)
dividing the space to be “dammed (i.e. a space across where a
wall is built)” into a number of spans.
• To hold up water and retain the water between the buttresses,
panels are constructed of horizontal arches (“multiple-arches
type”) or flat slabs (“deck type”.)
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(5.) STEEL DAM

• The dam is constructed with a “framework of steel” with a thin skin
plate as deck slab on the upstream side.
• Steel dams are generally of two types:-
 Direct strutted type: - the load on the deck plate is carried
directly to the foundations through inclined struts.
 Cantilever type: - the struts supporting the upper part of the
deck are formed into a cantilever truss. A tensile force is
developed in the deck girders which is resisted EITHER,
by anchoring the deck girder into the foundation at the upstream
toe; OR
 by framing the entire bent rigidly together so that the moment of
the weight of the water is equal to that of the cantilever.
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(6.) TIMBER DAMS

• This type is constructed of “framework of timber struts and beams”,

with timber plank facing to resist water pressure.
• A timber dam is an ideal temporary dam, though if well designed,
constructed and maintained may last 30 – 40 yrs. It is suitable to
places where timber can be available in plenty.
• There are normally three types:-

(a) A-frame type: -

– The sills is fastened to the ledge rock by wedge bolts or anchor
bolts. Lagging 5 cm thick.
Next
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(b) Crib type: -

• Cribs of square or round timber are drift-bolted together. The timbers are
spaced about 2.0 -2.5 m centre-to-centre both ways and the space between
them is filled with rock fragments or boulders.
• In the case of rock foundation, the bottom cribs are pinned to the rock
foundation.
(c) Beaver type: -
• This is used for low height and the upstream slope of the dam is not kept
steeper than 1H:2V.
• It consists of a number of timbers the butts of which point downstream and
between the butts are placed spacer logs which are drift pinned. Earth of
sand-fill is placed over the plank deck for its stability.
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2.1.2 SELECTION FOR DAMS AND RESERVOIRS

(1.) Required Categories of Surveys
• Engineering survey;

• Geological survey; and

• Hydrological survey

(a) Engineering Surveys

• Topographical survey of the area at the dam site is carried out in detail and
the contour map is prepared. From this map, the following physical
characteristics are prepared:-

 Area-Elevation curve;

 Storage-Elevation (or Capacity-Elevation, or Volume-Elevation) curve;

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 Map of the area to show the land and property to be surveyed; and
 Suitable site selection for the dam and reservoir.

(b) Geological Surveys

• The investigations of the geological formations of the area are necessary
so as to obtain detailed information about the following issues:-
(i) Water tightness of the reservoir basin;
(ii) Suitability of the foundation for the dam;
(iii) Geological and structural features (e.g. folds, faults, fissures, etc.) of
the rocks of the basin;
(iv) Types and depths of overburden (superficial deposits);
(v) Location of permeable and soluble rocks, if any;
 2.1 DAMS IN GENERAL 21

(vi) Ground water conditions in the region; and

(vii) Location of quarry sites for materials required for the dam construction
and quantities available from them.
• NB:- The geology of the catchment area influences the proportions of the
runoff and percolation.

(c) Hydrological Surveys

• This investigation can be divided into the following two categories:-

(i) Study of runoff patterns at the proposed site of the dam to so as to

determine the storage capacity corresponding to a given demand; and
(ii) Determination of the hydrograph of the worst flood to enable
determine the spillway capacity and design.
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(2.) Factors Influencing Site Selection for a Reservoir

(i) Geological conditions of the catchment area enables minimum
percolation losses (leakages),and maximum runoff.
 Reservoir sites having presence of highly permeable rocks reduce
the water-tightness of the reservoir.
 Rocks unlikely to allow passage of much water: e.g. shales, slates,
gneiss, and crystalline igneous rocks (e.g. granite).
(ii) Cost (is a controlling factor):-
 Adequate storage capacity of reservoir basin at a minimum cost.
 Cost of land and property submerged in the water spread area
should be a minimum.
 The basin should have narrow opening in the valley so that length
of the dam is less.
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 The cost of real estate for the reservoir including road, rail, dwelling,
reallocation, etc, must be as less as possible.
(iii) Topography that allows adequate capacity and that a deep reservoir can
be formed; so as to ensure less evaporation losses (due to small water-
spread area); lowers cost of land submerged per unit capacity; and less
likelihood of weed growth.
(iv) Avoidance or exclusion of water from those tributaries which carry high
percentage of silt in water.
(v) The site must be such that the water stored in it, is suitable for the
purpose for which the project is undertaken (i.e. the soil and rock mass at
the reservoir site must not contain any objectionable minerals and salts).
 2.1 DAMS IN GENERAL 24

(3.) SELECTION OF BEST TYPE OF DAM FOR A GIVEN SITE

• A number of type of dams may be technically feasible, but
preliminary designs and estimates are required for such dams
before one can be shown to be the most economical.
• Before selecting the best type of dam at a particular site, one
must consider the characteristics of each type of dam, as related
to the following factors:-
 Physical features of the site as related to the purposes the dam is
supposed to serve, economy, and safety;
 Availability of labour, material of construction, and equipment;
 Outlet work limitations,
 Cost of protection needed for spillway discharge; and
 Time required for its construction.
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The selection of a site for constructing a dam is governed by

the following factors:-
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Physical features
• For economy, the river cross section at the dam site must have
a deep narrow gorge (i.e. a bottleneck configuration of
contours) to reduce the length of the dam. Also there should
be a “flank” at any of its sides separated by a “hillock” higher
than the height of the dam.
• Thus, the main dam is located in the deep gorge while the
spillway must be located in the flank.
• However the gorge should open out upstream to provide large
basin for a reservoir so as to store the maximum volume of
water.
• A major portion of the dam site should preferably be on high
ground, as this would reduce the height (hence cost) and
facilitate drainage.
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• A narrow U-shaped valley (i.e. a narrow stream flowing between high

rocky walls) would suggest a concrete overflow dam. A narrow V-
shaped valley indicates the choice of an arch dam.

Spillway Size and Location:-

• Low-rolling plain country would suggest an earthfill dam with
separate spillway.
• Location of a separate spillway is essential especially for earthfill and
rockfill dams. However, in the case of gravity dam, spillway may be
located at its middle.
• If the area is such that a large spillway capacity is required (e.g.
streams with large flood potential) an overflow concrete gravity dam
is preferred.
•
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• Where small capacity is required, and where separate site for

spillway location is available, an earthfill dam or rockfill dam may
be preferred, even in narrow dam sites.
• For unavailable site for separate spillway, or if construction cost
is high, combining the spillway and the dam into one structure is
desirable, indicating the adoption of a concrete overflow dam
Geology and Foundation Conditions:-
Survey by a geologist to detect the thickness of the foundation
strata, presence of faults, fissures, slips, slopes, construction
materials, and their permeability, etc.
• Suitable foundation to be ensured:
• For earthfill dams, any type of foundation is suitable so long as it
is provided with proper treatment.
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• For gravity dams, sound rock is essential.

• Foundation should be free from seams, open pockets, or
fault planes.
• Formations in which hard and soft layers alternate are not
good because the penetration of water may weakens the
soft layers, and thus, lead to movement along them.
• Alterations of sandstones and shales may also lead to
slipping during excavation of the trench.
• Beds which dip gently upstream and strike across the
valley provide good foundation conditions among
sedimentary rocks. This is so because the resultant of the
weight of the dam and water pressure will act nearly at
right angles to the bedding planes of the strata.
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• The best conditions are when a dam can be built on one

uniform formation. If more than one kind of rock is present
in the foundations, different bearing strengths may lead to
differential settlement of the structure.

(i) Solid (or Sound) Rock Foundations (e.g. Granite, Gneiss,

etc):-
• They have a strong bearing power, and offer high resistance
to erosion and percolation.
• Almost every type of dam can be built on such foundations.
However, if seams and fracture are present, they must be
grouted and sealed properly.
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(ii) Coarse Sand and Gravel (or Poor rock) Foundations:-

• They are unable to bear the weight of high concrete gravity
dams; but are suitable for earth and rockfill dams. Low concrete
dams up to 15 m high may be suggested on these foundations.
• Have high permeability, and thus, subjected to high rate
percolation. Suitable cut-offs must be provided to avoid danger
of undermining.
(iii) Silt or Fine Sand Foundations:-
• Suggests the adoption of earth dams or very low gravity dams (
9m high). A rockfill dam is unsuitable.
• Seepage and settlement may be a problem. So design to avoid
these problems and ensure protection of foundations at the
downstream toe from erosion. Next
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(iv) Clay Foundation:-

• Unconsolidated and high moisture clays are likely to cause
enormous settlement of the dam. They are not suitable for
concrete gravity dams or rockfill dams.
• These foundations may be accepted for earthen dams, but
that too, after special treatment of the foundation.
(d) Availability of Materials of Construction
• To achieve economy in dam construction, material required
for must be available locally or at short distances from the
construction site.
• This reduces transportation charges, and thus, reduced of
cost:
 For sand, gravel and crushed stone available nearby; a concrete gravity
dam may be more suitable;
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• For coarse and fine grained soils, an earth dam may be

suitable;
• In case material is to be transported from far off distances,
then a hollow concrete (i.e. buttress) dam is a better choice.

(e) Earthquakes Zones

• If the dam is to be situated in an earthquake zone, its design
must include the earthquake forces. Its safety should be
ensured against the increased stresses induced by an
earthquake of worst intensity.
• The type of structures best suited to resist earthquake
shocks without danger are earthfill dams and concrete
gravity dams.
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(f) Other Factors

(i) Length and Height of Dam:-
• If the length of the dam is very long and its height is low, an
earthfill dam would be a better choice. Note that earthen dams
are usually not provided for heights more than 30 m or so.
• If the length is small but height is high, gravity dams are
preferred.
(ii) Roadway:-
• If a roadway is to be passed over the top of the dam, an earth
dam or gravity dam would be preferred.
(iii) Life of Dam:-
• Concrete or masonry gravity dams have very long life. Earthfill
and rockfill dams have intermediate life.
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 However, timber dams are adopted only for temporary

storages.
(iv) Communication:-
• The dam site should be easily accessible so that it can be
economically connected to important towns/cities by: -
rails, roads etc. to ease transportation.
(v) Settlement Establishment:-
• Site for establishing labour colonies and a healthy
environment should be available in the near vicinity.
2.2 SPILLWAYS IN GENERAL 36

• A spillway: - is an overflow portion of a dam (also called a

“surplussing wok”), over which surplus discharge flows (i.e.
flood water not required to be stored) is carried safely from
the reservoir to the downstream.
• The spillway must have sufficient capacity to discharge
maximum floods without damage to the dam, or any
appurtenant structures; and at the same time keeping the
same reservoir level below some pre-determined maximum
level.
 The spillway is, thus a “safety valve” for the dam.
 Also, it must be hydraulically and structurally adequate and must be
located so that it does not erode or undermine the d/s of the dam.
2.2 SPILLWAYS IN GENERAL 37

2.2.1 LOCATION OF SPILLWAYS

Spillways can be located either within the body of the dam;
or at the end of it; or entirely away from the dam
independently in the “saddle”.
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2.2.2 TYPES SPILLWAY

(a) Based on their “Utility”: - spillways can be of two types,
i.e. Main spillway and Subsidiary or Emergency spillway.
(i) Main spillway: - is the one which is aimed to work under
design flood
(ii) Subsidiary/Emergency spillway: - is provided for additional
safety should emergencies not contemplated by normal
design assumptions arise.
 The top (crest) level of this embankment is kept “at or
above” the designed maximum water level (M.W.L.); and
the materials and designs are such that they fail by being
washed away as soon as water overtops them.
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• Emergency spillways are provided for earthfill and

rockfill dams only, to avoid the overtopping of the
embankment because of an emergency condition.
• A separate independent spillway is generally preferred
for earthen dams although due to non-availability of
sites, a “concrete spillway” is sometimes constructed
within or at one of the ends of an earthen dam.
• If the main spillway is situated in a flank, the
secondary or emergency spillway may be situated in
another flank (ref: fig. 2.7).
2.2 SPILLWAYS IN GENERAL 41

(b) Depending on whether the flow Over the Spillway is

controlled or Uncontrolled: -
(i) Controlled Spillway: - the flow of water over a spillway is
controlled by installing gates over the spillway crest.
(ii) Uncontrolled Spillway: - the spillway crest is constructed
and left at the normal water level. Hence water flows over
the crest depending on the reservoir level and the
corresponding head over the spillway crest. It is thus
guided only by the available water head.
(c) Based on their “most prominent features”
(pertaining to EITHER their control OR to the
discharge channel or to some other components): -
2.2 SPILLWAYS IN GENERAL 42

The following are the main type of spillways:-

• Free Overfall (or Straight Drop) Spillway;
• Ogee (or Overflow) Spillway;
• Chute (or Open Channel or Trough) Spillway;
• Conduit (or Tunnel) Spillway;
• Drop Inlet (or Shaft or Morning Glory) Spillway;
and
• Siphon Spillway.
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• Water drops freely from the crest with the vacuum created
in the underside portion of the falling jet.
 Hence sufficient ventilation of the “nappe” is needed in
order to avoid pulsating and fluctuating effect of the jet.
• Where erosion is not permissible, a “low secondary dam” is
constructed to create an artificial pool; or a concrete apron
may be provided.
 If tail-water depth is insufficient, a hydraulic jump will form;
and the energy is dissipated by means of turbulence caused
by impingement of the flow upon the “impact block basin”.
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Z
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(3.) CHUTE (OR TROUGH) SPILLWAY

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• A “Chute Spillway” is one which passes the

surplus discharge through a steeply sloping open
channel, called a “chute” or “trough”, placed
either along a dam abutment or through a saddle
(or a flank); and leads water from the reservoir to
the downstream river channel.
• It is sometimes known as a “waste weir
• If it is constructed in a natural saddle in a bank of
the river separated from the main dam by a high
ridge, it is called a “saddle weir”.
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5.0 CONDUIT SPILLWAY AND SHAFT SPILLWAY

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Waterway Construction:-
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