Statistics Module (4th Quarter)

Experiments and sample space
9
What
You’ll
 Define an experiment, outcome, sample space, and event.
 List all the possible outcomes in an outcome.
Learn
Thousands of people rush to buy lottery tickets in the hope of winning the jackpot
prize. But did you know that the odds of winning are incredibly small? The probability that the
six numbers on a ticket match the numbers drawn by the lottery from 1 to 49 is 1 in 13 983 816.
The chance is so small, you have a greater chance of giving birth to identical quadruplets (1 in
13 million), being an astronaut (1 in 12 million), getting fatally struck by lightning (1 in 10
million), getting hit by a falling airplane part (1 in 10 million), being crushed by a meteor (1 in
700 000), or winning an Oscar (1 in 11 500) than winning the lotto jackpot prize.
9.1. THE CONCEPT OF CHANGE

Many things in life are uncertain
Will it rain
Will I pass today?
the test?
Will our team

will the game?
These questions can be answered with words such as “maybe”, “likely”, “perhaps”, or
“probably”. We ask questions because we are uncertain whether such events will occur or not.
Consider which of these events is likely to happen?
It rains on
Christmas Day
It snows in Manila
A storm hits the
Philippines in April
Our personal experiences tell us that rain on Christmas Day is highly likely, but a
storm in April is quite unlikely. Snow in Manila, on the other hand, is extremely unlikely.
People use their personal experiences and intuition to answer questions about an
event’s chance of occurring, but in some cases, it is possible to give a more precise numerical
measure of chance.
Statistics and Probability | Lesson 9: Experiment and Sample Space 1

Probability is the branch of mathematics concerned with analyzing the chance that
a particular event will occur. Its purpose is to attempt to predict the likelihood that something will
or will not happen.
Example 1:
Tell whether each event is certain, impossible, or possible.
1. A mother will give birth to twins.
2. Vinegar is sour.
3. You will go sunbathing tonight.
Answers:
1. It is possible. Some mothers have twins.
2. It is certain.
3. It is impossible since there is no sun at night.
Example 2:
Tell whether each event is certain, impossible, or possible.
1. A snake will swim in water.
2. A carabao will climb a tree.
3. You will make it to the list of top ten students in your class.
9.2. PROBABILITY EXPERIMENTS AND SAMPLE SPACE

When a mother gives birth to a baby, what are the possible outcomes? The baby
could be a boy or a girl. When you toss a coin, what are the possible outcomes? The coin may
land head or tail. In these examples, the result depends on chance
The table below shows example of probability experiments and their possible
outcomes.
Probability Experiment Possible Outcomes
Tossing a die
Flipping a coin
Drawing a card at random from a set of

cards (1 – 10)
Spinning a wheel

Each possible result of a probability experiment is an outcome. The set of all
possible outcomes is the sample space of the experiment. The sample space is usually denoted
by S and the total number of possible outcomes by n(S).
Example 3:
For each experiment, write the sample space and the total number of possible outcomes.
a. Tossing a die b. Spinning the wheel shown, assuming that
the arrow will never fall on the lines
separating the 3 sectors.
c. Flipping a coin d. Drawing a card at random from a

deck of 10 identical card suits
labeled 1 to 10
Solutions:
Your
Turn!
For each experiment, write the sample space and the total number of possible outcomes.
a. Spinning the wheel, assuming
b. Drawing a car at random from a deck of 8
that the arrow will never fall on
identical card suits labeled 2 to 9.
the lines separating the 6 sectors.
c. Tossing a standard octahedral (8 –

sided) die.
Example 4:
There are 4 red blocks and 3 blue blocks in a box with numbers written
on each block that cannot be felt by the one drawing the block. Write the
total sample space and the total number of possible outcomes if a block
is picked at random.
Solutions:
Since there are 4 red blocks
and 3 blue blocks,
Your
where
represents the outcome of Turn!
There are 2 red balls, 3
getting a red block and green balls, and 1 black ball in a pouch
represents the outcome of with numbers written on each ball. Write
getting a blue block the sample space and the total number of
It is incorrect to write since it would suggest possible outcomes if a ball is picked at
that there is only one red block and blue random.
block.
So .

Republic of the Philippines
SOUTHERN LUZON STATE UNIVERSITY
LABORATORY SCHOOL
Lucban, Quezon
Name: _______________________________ Date:

_______________________
Grade & Section: _______________________ Score:
______________________
Activity #4.1: EXPERIMENT AND SAMPLE SPACE
DO IT YOURSELF!
A. Tell whether each event is certain, impossible, or possible.
_______________1. A dog will lay eggs.
_______________2. If you dip your hand in water, your hand will get wet.
_______________3. A Filipino does not speak Tagalog.
_______________4. June comes after July.
_______________5. A carabao’s color is white.
_______________6. The sum will rise tomorrow morning.
_______________7. A man gives birth to a baby.
_______________8. I will pass the test next week.
_______________9. Sugar dissolves in water.
_______________10. A whale will drown at sea.
B. Tick the event that is more likely to happen.
11.
☐ a. You will obtain a college degree.
☐ b. You will become an international celebrity.
12.
☐ a. A cellular phone you just bought is defective.
☐ b. A cellular phone you just bought is not defective.
13.
☐ a. The next Philippines president is a woman.
☐ b. The next Philippines president is a man.
14.
☐ a. You will see a whale shark in Sorsogon.
☐ b. You will climb Mt. Everest.
15.
☐ a. A person wins the grand prize in lotto.
☐ b. A person is struck by lightning.
Statistics and Probability | Activity 4.1: Experiments and Sample Space 4

C. Determine which is most likely and least likely outcomes to happen in the given situation.
If you spin the spinner 50 times, which color will be most likely and least likely
to occur?
16. Most likely: _____________

17. Least Likely: ____________
A bag has 5 red balls, 1 black ball, 3 blue balls, and 8 yellow balls. If you
draw a ball at random and put it back into the bag 20 times, which color will
be most likely and least likely to occur?
18. Most likely: _____________

19. Least Likely: ____________
D. For each experiment, write the sample space and the total number of possible outcomes.
20. To decide on which day to visit his grandmother, Bobby writes the 7 days of the week
on equal pieces of paper and picks one at random.
a. : _____________
b. : ____________
21. Minnie tosses a standard tetrahedral die marked 1 – 4.
a. : _____________
b. : ____________
22. Marco writes down the prime number less than 20 on identical pieces of paper, one
number of each paper. Then he draws one paper at random.
a. : _____________
b. : ____________
23. Jessica spins the wheel shown if the arrow will never on the lines separating the sectors.
a. : _____________
b. : ____________
Statistics and Probability | Activity 4.1: Experiments and Sample Space 5

UNDERSTANDING
10 PROBABILITY
What
You’ll
 Define event and the probability of an event.
 Measure chance using probability
Learn
 Find the probability of events
10.1 PROBABILITY OF AN EVENT

Who Serves First?
In a tennis match, the chance to serve first is determined by a
coin toss. Thee player who wins the coin toss gets to choose
whether to serve or to receive. The loser in the coin toss has no
choice but to abide by the winner’s decision.
If you were the player, would you choose head or tail? Why?
Why a coin is tossed, how likely is to get a head?
If the coin is fair or unbiased, it is equally likely to get a head or a tail. There is a 50% chance of
getting a head. Or we say that the probability of the event that a head occurs is 1 out of 2 or . In
general, any subset of a sample space is called an event.
In a sample space of equally likely outcomes, the probability of an event, denoted as , is

compute based on favorable outcomes and the number of possible outcomes.
Example 1: Solutions:
A fair die is rolled
a.Write down the sample
space. a.
b.Find the total number c. i.
of possible outcomes.
c.What is the probability
of getting ii. The odd numbers are 1, 3, and 5
i.a “4”?
ii.an odd number?
iii.a number less
than 3? iii. The numbers less than 3 are 1 and 2
Statistics and Probability | Lesson 9: Understanding Probability 6

A circle is divided into 12 equal parts a.
to form a spinner. It is numbered as b. The prime numbers are 2, 3, 5, 7, and 11
shown on the right. When the pointer
is spun, what is the probability that it c. The numbers between 5 and 10 are 6, 7, 8, and 9.
will stop at
a. a ‘7’? d. All numbers in the spinner are less than 13.
b. a prime number?
c. a number between 5 and e. There is no negative number. This is an impossible
10? event
d. a number less than 13?
e. a negative number? f. The square numbers are 1, 4, and 9
f. a square number?
A pack of buttons has 10 white The total number of buttons is 22.
buttons, 8 red buttons, and 4 black a.
buttons. If a button is picked at b.
random, what is the probability that
the button picked is
a. white?
b. red?
c. black?
A spinner is constructed as shown on Let’s assume that the pointer will never stop exactly
the right. When the pointer is spun, on any of the lines separating the sectors.
what is the probability that the pointer
will stop at a.
a. red?
b. blue?
c. green?
Your
Turn!
1. A fair die is rolled. What is the probability of 3. There are 16 girls and 20 boys in a class. If
getting a student is selected at random, what is the
a. a multiple of 3? probability that the student selected is
b. a number of greater than 6? a. a boy
c. a prime number? b. a girl
d. a number less than 7?
4. A spinner is constructed as shown on the
2. Fifteen identical cards are labeled 1 to 15. right side. When the pointer is spun, what
Find the probability that a card at random the probability that the pointer will stop at
may be: a. red?
a. an odd number b. blue?
b. a multiple of 5 c. green? 100°
c. less than 8 but greater than 3
d. a factor of 15
d. yellow? 25°
e. divisible by 3 and 2
Statistics and Probability | Lesson 9: Understanding Probability 7

LABORATORY SCHOOL
Lucban, Quezon
Name: _______________________________ Date:

_______________________
______________________Activity #4.2: UNDERSTANDING PROBABILITY
TEST YOUR UNDERSTANDING!
1. Suppose a fair die is tossed. What is the probability of getting an even number?
Edwin: There are 3 even number and 6 possible outcomes, so the answer is .
Tony: Half of the number are even, so the answer is .
Who is correct?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
DO IT YOURSELF! Show you solution.
1. A circle is divided into 12 equal parts to form a spinner and numbered as shown.
a. Write down the sample space.
b. Find the number of possible outcomes.
c. Find the probability that when the pointer is spun, it will stop at
i. a ‘9’
ii. a prime number
iii. a number greater than 4
iv. a multiple of 20
v. a factor of 12
vi. not a prime number
2. A bag contains 10 red marbles, 6 yellow marbles, 12 orange marbles, and 2 black marbles. A
marble is picked at random. Find the probability that is
a. red
b. yellow
c. orange
d. black
3. What is the probability that a day of the week drawn at random
a. starts with a “T”?
b. has more than 6 letters?
c. has the letter “e” in it?
d. ends in ‘y’?
e. has fewer than 6 letters?
4. Each of the letters of the word GOOGLE is written on a card. The 6 cards are shuffled and
placed upside down on the table. What is the probability that a card picked at random shows
a. the letter ’O’?
b. the letter ‘E’?
c. a vowel?
4. d. a letter between B and M?
In a group of 50 people, 8 are teachers, 22 are boys, and 20 are girls. If a person is chosen at
a. random, what is the probability that the person is
Statistics and Probability | Activity 3.1: Measures of Position for Ungrouped Data 10
a boy?
b. a teacher?
LABORATORY SCHOOL
Lucban, Quezon
Name: _______________________________ Date:

_______________________
Activity #4.2: UNDERSTANDING PROBABILITY
______________________
1. Suppose a fair die is tossed. What is the probability of getting an even number?
Edwin: There are 3 even number and 6 possible outcomes, so the answer is .
Tony: Half of the number are even, so the answer is .
Who is correct?
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________________
DO IT YOURSELF! Show you solution.
1. A circle is divided into 12 equal parts to form a spinner and numbered as shown.
a. Write down the sample space.
b. Find the number of possible outcomes.
c. Find the probability that when the pointer is spun, it will stop at
i. a ‘9’
ii. a prime number
iii. a number greater than 4
iv. a multiple of 20
v. a factor of 12
vi. not a prime number
2. A bag contains 10 red marbles, 6 yellow marbles, 12 orange marbles, and 2 black marbles. A marble is
picked at random. Find the probability that is
a. red
b. yellow
c. orange
d. black
3. What is the probability that a day of the week drawn at random
a. starts with a “T”?
b. has more than 6 letters?
c. has the letter “e” in it?
d. ends in ‘y’?
e. has fewer than 6 letters?
4. Each of the letters of the word GOOGLE is written on a card. The 6 cards are shuffled and placed upside
down on the table. What is the probability that a card picked at random shows
a. the letter ’O’?
b. the letter ‘E’?
c. a vowel?
d. a letter between B and M?
e. In a group of 50 people, 8 are teachers, 22 are boys, and 20 are girls. If a person is chosen at random,
what is the probability that the person is
f. a boy?
g. a teacher?
h. not a teacher?
i. either a teacher, a boy, or a girl?
Statistics and Probability | Activity 3.1: Measures of Position for Ungrouped Data 10
b.
Since the 18th, 19th and 20th scores are the same which is 15. So, we can get the average of these
ranks:
The 19th score is 15.
But the score
or th decile
Example 4:
In the given data in example #3, find:
a. What score is at the 9th decile?
b. At which decile is the score of 19?
Solution:
a.
There are 20 observations in the set. So, .
First, arrange the numbers in ascending order. (smallest to greatest)
5 6 7 8 8 9 10 10 10 11
11 12 12 12 12 13 14 15 15 15
16 17 18 18 19 19 20 20 20 20
score
Since, there is no exact position where to locate the first quartile, we are going to use linear
interpolation to find the value of the 27.5 th score or the 9th decile.
Let us identify the values needed to compute the 9 th quartile
Therefore, the value of 9 th decile is 20.
Statistics and Probability | Lesson 7: Measures of Position for Ungrouped Data 5

b.
Since the 25th and 26th scores are the same which is 15. So, we can get the average of these
ranks:
The 25.5th score is 19.
But the score
rd
decile
Your
Turn!
The list shows the scores of 40 students in their 15 – item test. Find the value of
the , and . Show all the necessary solutions needed
5 8 3 1 2 9 4 10 15 12
13 8 9 12 15 4 12 11 8 7
6 12 14 15 6 11 3 5 3 9
6 7 10 9 10 9 13 14 14 13
a. Find the value of the , and .

b. At which decile is the score 12?
c. At which decile is the score 14?
7.1.3. PERCENTILES
Percentiles are values that divide set of ranked data into 100 equal parts. These
values are denoted by , , ,…, . For example, the value (the median) means 50% of the data have
lower values than .
A percentile rank is the proportion of scores in a distribution that is below a specific

score.
The general formula for determining the position of any percentile in the ordered set
of data:
The kth percentile is the score, or we say the position of the kth percentile is , where n is the
number of observation or data in the set.

Example 5:
The height (in cm) of twelve students were measured as follows
a. Who stands in the middle of the line?

b. What height is the median or the 50 th percentile rank?
c. 70% of the students are shorter than what height?
d. What height is at the 25th percentile rank?
Solution:
a.
Let us arrange the 12 students from shortest to tallest
Since there are twelve students, two students are in the middle: Bea and Leah
b.
The median height is the average of Bea’s and Leah’s heights.
Median
Thus, the median height is 158 cm.
We know that the median is the 50 th percentile. Solving for the 50 th percentile using the formula,
we have
6.5th height
Since 6.5 is simply the position, let us use linear interpolation. Take the 6 th height and add to this
0.5 of the difference between the 6 th and the 7th heights.
6.5th height = 6th height + 0.5 (7th height –

6th height)
= 157 + 0.5 (159 – 157)
= 157 + 0.5 (2)
= 157 +1
= 158
Thus, 158 cm.
Observed that the results obtained for height is the same as the median height.

c.
The 70th percentile height is the height in this position
0.7 (12) + 0.5

8.4 + 0.5
8.9th height
The result suggest that the 70 th percentile height is between the 8 th and 9th positions.
The 8th height () is Raymond’s which is 160 cm. The 9 th height () is Carlo’s, which is 161 cm.
8.9th height = 8th height + 0.9 (9th height –

8th height)
= 160 + 0.9 (161 – 160)
= 160 + 0.9 (1)
= 160 + 0.9
= 160. 9
So, the 70th percentile height is 160.9 cm.
d.
The height at the 25th percentile is in this position
0.75 (12) + 0.5

3 + 0.5
3.5th height
The height at the 25th percentile is found between the 3 rd and 4th positions.
The 3rd height () is Nena’s which is 150 cm. The 4 th height () is Cathy’s, which is 152 cm.
3.5th height = 3rd height + 0.5 (4th height –

3rd height)
= 150 + 0.5 (152 – 150)
= 150 + 0.5 (2)
= 150 + 1
= 151
So, the 25th percentile height is 151 cm.
Example 6:
The following are the weights ( in kg.) of 15 students.
50 47 40 38 38.4
45 39 48 50.5 51.8
48 48 49 52 43
a. Find the median

b. The 85th percentile rank.

Solution:
a.
Let us arrange the weights of 15 students.
38 38.4 39 40 43 45 47 48 48 48 49 50 50.5 51.8 52
Since there are fifteen students, there is exactly one weight in the middle and that is 48kg.
We also knew that the median is the 50 th percentile. Solving for the 50 th percentile using the
formula, we have
8th weight
Since 8 is simply the position, let’s locate the 8 th weight on the arranged data and that is 48 kg.
Thus, 48 kg.
Observed that the results obtained for height is the same as the median weight.
b.
The weight at the 85th percentile is in this position
12.75 + 0.5
13.25th weight
The weight at the 85th percentile is found between the 13 th and 14th positions.
The 13th weight () is 50.5 kg. The 14 th height () is 51.8 cm.
13.25th weight = 13th weight + 0.25 (14th

weight – 13th weight)
= 50.5 + 0.25
(51.8 – 50.5)
= 50.5 + 0.25
(1.3)
= 50.5 + 0.325
= 50. 83
So, the 85th percentile height is 50.83 kg.
Your
The table below shows the list of the most endangered animals on Earth.
Turn! EMN
Animal Animal EMN Animal EMN
Amur Leopard 84 Siberian Tiger 562 Malayan Tiger 340
Javan Rhinoceros 68 Little Dodo Bird 380
a. The 25th percentile rank
Northern Right 350 Tooth – billed Pigeon 70 b. Find the median
Whale c. The 70th percentile rank
Gharial 300
Vaquita 10 d. The 80th percentile rank.
Kakapo 140
Tapanuli Orangutan 800
Fiji Petrel 50
Mountain Gorilla 1000
Black Rhinoceros 2500
Cross River Gorilla 300
Counting techniques
8
What
You’ll
 Determine the number of ways a compound event may occur.
 Use a tree diagram in determining all possible outcomes of a compound event.
Learn
 State the Fundamental Principle of Counting
 Solve counting problems using the Fundamental Principle of Counting.
 Illustrate the permutation of objects.
 Evaluate factorial notation.
 Derive formula for finding the number of permutation of objects taken at a time.
 Solve problems involving permutations.
 Illustrate the combination of objects.
 Differentiate permutation from combination of objects taken at a time.
 Derive formula for finding the number of combinations of objects taken at a time.
 Solve problems involving combinations.
If one has to make a prediction regarding the outcome of a certain activity, then the
possible outcomes should first be identified. Identification of these outcomes requires the
knowledge of counting. In counting, the simplest method is done by enumerating all the possible
outcomes. This method, however, is too laborious and hence, not an efficient method. In this
chapter, we shall consider the most used methods of counting – the fundamental principle of
counting, permutation, and combination.
8.1. USING TREE DIAGRAMS
The process of counting the number of outcomes in a sample space is well illustrated
with a tree diagram. It is also a systematic way of listing every possibility.
Example 1:
Sarah Geronimo is a popular concert artist. Suppose she is planning a concert tour in three cities
– Manila, Cebu, and Davao. In how many ways can she arrange her tour schedule?
Solution:
If there is no restriction on the order of performances, then Sarah may start in any
one of the three cities. After the first city is chosen, she may choose from the two remaining cities
as her second stop. The remaining city will be her last stop.
1st Stop 2nd Stop 3rd Stop
Cebu Davao
Manila
Davao Cebu
Manila Davao
Start Cebu
Davao Manila
Manila Cebu
Davao
Cebu Manila
Statistics and Probability | Lesson 8: Counting Techniques – Tree Diagrams 11

The possible tour schedules of Sarah Geronimo are as follows:
1. Manila – Cebu – Davao

2. Manila – Davao – Cebu
3. Cebu – Manila – Davao There are 6 possible tour schedules
for Sarah Geronimo to follow.
4. Cebu – Davao – Manila
5. Davao – Manila – Cebu
6. Davao – Cebu – Manila
Example 2:
Suppose a quiz has only two questions. The first is a multiple – choice questions with four
choices (A, B, C, or D). The second is a true – false (T, F) question. In how many ways can this
quiz be answered?
Solution:
1st Question 2nd Question Outcomes
T AT
A F AF
T BT
B F BF
T CT
C F CF
T DT
D DF
F
4 ways to answer
the 1st question
2 ways to answer
the 2nd question
There are 8 possible ways to answer the 2 – item questions.
Your
1. In a Turn!
café, a coffee can be ordered in three sizes – small (S), medium (M), and large (L), and in
four flavors – Cappuccino (C), Macchiato (M), Americano (A), and Latte (L). Draw a tree
diagram. In how many ways can you order coffee?
2. A coin is tossed thrice. Draw a tree diagram to illustrate the possible outcomes.
3. A die is rolled once, and a coin is tossed. What are the possible outcomes? Draw a tree
diagram.
Statistics and Probability | Lesson 8: Counting Techniques – Tree Diagrams 12

8.2. USING TABLES
Another device that can be used to find all possible outcomes when two or more
experiments are performed together or in a sequence is a table of outcomes.
Example 3:
Two dice are rolled. What are the possible outcomes?
Solution:
The sample space for the first die is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and the sample space for the
second die is {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. If the outcomes for each die are combined, the
sample space will consist of 36 outcomes, as shown in the table.
Second Die
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 1, 1 2, 1 3, 1 4, 1 5, 1 6, 1
2 1, 2 2, 2 3, 2 4, 2 5, 2 6, 2
First Die
3 1, 3 2, 3 3, 3 4, 3 5, 3 6, 3
4 1, 4 2, 4 3, 4 4, 4 5, 4 6, 4
5 1, 5 2, 5 3, 5 4, 5 5, 5 6, 5
6 1, 6 2, 6 3, 6 4, 6 5, 6 6, 6
The outcome (2, 4) means 2 was obtained from the first die and 4 was obtained from the
second die.
Example 4:
A standard deck of 52 cards has four suits – hearts (), diamonds (), spade (♠), and clubs (♣),
and 13 cards for each suit consisting of the denominations A, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, J, Q, and K.
Use a table to show the sample space.
Solution:
A 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q K
 A 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q K

 A 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 J Q K
♠ A♠ 2♠ 3♠ 4♠ 5♠ 6♠ 7♠ 8♠ 9♠ 10♠ J♠ Q♠ K♠
♣ A♣ 2♣ 3♣ 4♣ 5♣ 6♣ 7♣ 8♣ 9♣ 10♣ J♣ Q♣ K♣
Your
1. TwoTurn!
four – sided dice are each rolled once. Each die is numbered 1, 2, 3, and 4. Create a
table to illustrate the possible outcomes.
2. Ali draws a card at random from the set of five cards (3, 4, 5, 6, & 7) and rolls a standard six-
sided die once. Draw a table to illustrate the possible outcomes.
3. A six – sided die and a coin is tossed. What are the possible outcomes? Draw a table.
Statistics and Probability | Lesson 8: Counting Techniques – Tables 13

8.3. FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLE OF COUNTING
A tree diagram and table are not always practical means of finding the sample space.
Is there a more efficient way to do it?
Let us recall and analyze the results of our examples and your turns.
Concert Tour Schedule

First Stop Second Stop Third Stop Number of Possible Ways
3 2 1  6
Different Ways to Answer a Quiz
1st Question 2nd Question
4 2  8
Tossing a Coin Thrice
First Toss Second Toss Third Toss
2 2 2  8
Tossing Two Dice
First Die Second Die
6 6  36
Do you see a more efficient way of counting?
Fundamental Counting Principle (FCP)
For a sequence of n events in which the first event can occur in ways (or choices)
and the second event can occur in ways and the third event can occur ways, and so on, the total
number of ways the sequence can occur is:
Example 5:
How many possible outcomes are there when 6 coins are flipped?
Solution:
In this case, a tree diagram can be cumbersome to do. As there is no need to
actually list the possible outcomes, the Fundamental Principle of Counting is good to use.
Since there are 2 possible outcomes for each of the 6 coins, there are
different results possible.
Example 6:
From the digits 1, 2, 3 and 4, list and count all the possible three – digit numbers that can be
formed. Repetition of digits is ALLOWED.
Solution:
In this case, we can use a tree diagram or table to represent the possible outcomes.
But, as this will take you a lot of time to do it, we will use the fundamental principle of counting.
Let us make an organized list.
Statistics and Probability | Lesson 8: Counting Techniques – Fundamental Counting Principles 14

One way to look at the list is that it consist “members within groups within groups”
111 211 311 411

112 212 312 412
113 213 313 413
114 214 314 414
121 221 321 421

122 222 322 422
123 223 323 423
124 224 324 424
131 231 331 431

132 232 332 432
133 233 333 433
134 234 334 434
141 241 341 441

142 242 342 442
143 243 343 443
144 244 344 444
 As seen in the list, there are “4 groups” as represented by 4 different colors. They represent the
4 possible choices for hundreds digits in constructing the three-digit numbers.
 Moreover, within each “group”, there are “4 groups” (you can call them “subgroups”). They
represent the 4 possible choices for tens digits for every hundreds digit.
 Within “each group within groups”, there are 4 members. They portray the different ones digit
that can used for every tens digit.
 Hence, the total number of possibilities is
Example 7:
From the digits 1, 2, 3 and 4, list and count all the possible three – digit numbers that can be
formed. Repetition of digits is NOT ALLOWED.
Solution:
Just like in our previous example , we will view our list with “members within groups
within groups”
123 213 312 412
124 214 314 413
132 231 321 421
134 234 324 423
142 241 341 431
143 243 342 434
 Notice that in the list, there are “4 groups”. They represent the 4 possible choices for the
hundreds digits in constructing the three – digit numbers.
 Within every group, there are “3 groups” (or “subgroups”). Since one of the four choices is
already used for the hundreds digit, we are left with 3 choices for tens digits for a given
hundreds digit.
 Within every “groups within groups”, there are “two members”. This is because the digits used
for hundreds and tens CANNOT be used in the ones digit place. Thus, we are left with 2
choices for a given hundreds and tens digit.

 Hence, the total number of possibilities is
Your
4,Turn!
1. How many numbers of three different digits each can be formed by choosing from the digits
6, 7, 8, and 9?
2. How many 2 – digit numbers can be formed by choosing from the digits 1, 2, 3, and 4, if the
digits may be repeated?
Example 8:
There are four blood types A, B, AB, and O. Blood can be Rh+ or Rh-. Finally, a donor can be
male or female. How many different classifications can be made?
SAMPLE CLASSIFICATION:
 A donor may be type and a female (i.e. Type A, Rh+, female)
 A donor may be type and a male (i.e. Type O, Rh-, male)
Solution:
 First, there are 4 possible blood types for a donor (i.e. A, B, AB, O). Hence, there are 4
choices for blood types. In another view, there are “4 groups” of donors.
 Second, within each “group”, there are “2 groups” (or “subgroups”). It is because for every
blood types, there are 2 possible Rh (i.e. Rh+, Rh-). In other words, we have 2 choices of Rh
for every blood type.
 Lastly, within each “group within a group”, there are “2 members”. It is because in a given blood
type and Rh, we have 2 choices for sex (i.e. Male or Female).
 Thus, the total number of classification is
Your
Turn!
1. How many possible outcomes are there when 3 dice are tossed?
2. How many possible outcomes are there when 6 coins are flipped?
3. How many ways can James mix and match 5 shirts and 3 pairs of jeans?
4. How many ways can you mix and match 4 shirts, 2 pairs of jeans, and 2 two pairs of shoes?
Example 9:
The employees of a company are given a 4-digit identification number. How many different
numbers are available if repetitions are permitted?
SAMPLE IDENTIFICATION NUMBERS:

 0232
 1230
 9987
 4568

Solution:
 For the first digit of the ID, we have 10 choices (i.e. 0, 1, 2, …, 8, 9). In another view, our “list”
has “10 groups”.
 For a given first digit, we have also 10 choices for the second digit. It is because we can still
use the digit that we used as the first digit (repetition is permitted). Thus, within every groups,
we have “10 groups” (a.k.a “groups within groups”)
 For a given first and second digit, we still have 10 choices for the third digit. It is because of
the same reason as the second bullet.
 For the same reason, we have 10 choices for the last digit.
 Therefore, the total number of possible ID’s is:
Example 10:
The employees of a company are given a 4-digit identification number. How many different
numbers are available if repetitions are NOT permitted?
SAMPLE IDENTIFICATION NUMBERS: INVALID IDENTIFICATION NUMBERS:

 0376  0034
 1092  1333
Solution:
 For the first digit of the ID, we have 10 choices (i.e. 0, 1, 2, …, 8, 9). In another view, our “list”
has “10 groups”.
 For a given first digit, we have 9 choices for the second digit. It is because we can’t use the
digit that we used as the first digit (repetition is not permitted).
 For a given first and second digit, we only have 8 choices for the third digit. It is because of the
same reason as the second bullet.
 For the same reason, we only have 7 choices for the last digit.
 Therefore, the total number of possible ID’s is:
Your
Turn!
1. How many five – digit numbers with distinct digits are there?
NOTE: Distinct means that repetition is not allowed.
2. Suppose that Ricky, Joseph, Jane, Jenny and Trisha at to be seated in a row of five chairs.
Determine the number of all the possible seating arrangements such that the first and last
seats are occupied by boys.
3. A license plate consists of 2 letters and 3 digits. How many different plates can be made if
repetitions of characters are permitted?
SAMPLE LICENSE PLATES:
 TR001
 XP123
 JJ010
 QU982

LABORATORY SCHOOL
Lucban, Quezon
Name: _______________________________ Date:

_______________________
______________________
Activity #3.2: FUNDAMENTAL COUNTING PRINCIPLES
DO IT YOURSELF!
A. Draw a tree diagram and list the possible outcomes for each event.
1.Three coins are tossed
2.Two dice are rolled
3.Four coins are tossed
4.A die is rolled and then a coin is tossed.
5.The coffee shop offers these choices:
Flavor of coffee: cappuccino, mocha, latte
Size of coffee: tall, medium, short
Coffee may be hot or iced.
In how many ways can you order your coffee?
B. Read each problems carefully. Then solve the problems applying the fundamental counting
principles.
1. Jao has 7 shirts, 4 pairs of pants, and 2 pairs of shoes. How many different “shirt – pants –
shoe” outfits do he have?
2. A canteen offers a special price for set meals. A meal consists of main items, a side order,
and a drink. The main items are chicken, fish, beef, and pork. The side orders are fries,
mashed potato, rice, pasta, baked beans, and vegetables. The drinks are soda, juice, and
iced tea. How many different complete meals does the canteen offer?
3. A canteen offers a special price for set meals. A meal consists of main items, a side order,
and a drink. The main items are chicken, fish, beef, and pork. The side orders are fries,
mashed potato, rice, pasta, baked beans, and vegetables. The drinks are soda, juice, and
iced tea. How many different complete meals does the canteen offer?
4. A particular type of combination lock used the digits 0 to 9. How many sequences of four
numbers can be formed to open the lock?
5. Monica is going out for the evening. She is choosing from one of 6 dresses, one pair out of
5 pairs of shoes, and one out of 3 evening bags. In how many ways can she choose?
6. In how many ways can the Miss Universe, the first runner – up, and the second runner –
up be chosen from 10 finalists?
7. An executive plans to buy a car. When he goes to a car dealer, he is informed that there
are 3 brands available. Each of the 3 brands has 4 models and each of the model has 3
colors to choose from. Based on these information, in how many ways can the executive
choose a car?
8. How many 4 – letter codes can be formed with the letters M, N, O, P, Q, R, and S
a. with repetition?
b. without repetition?
Statistics and Probability | Activity 3.2: Fundamental Counting Principles 18

8.4. PERMUTATION
• It is the set of objects is an ordered arrangement of the items.

• The number of permutation taken at a time is denoted by .
• The total number of permutation of a set of objects is given by .
Example 1: Solution:
Evaluate.
¿5∙4 ∙3∙2∙1=𝟏𝟐𝟎
1. 8
1. ¿8∙7∙6∙5∙4∙3∙2∙1=𝟒𝟎𝟑𝟐𝟎
8
Example 2:
In how many ways can six books be arranged on a shelf?
Solution:
¿6∙5∙4∙3∙2∙1=𝟕𝟐𝟎
The six books can be arranged in 720 ways.
Your
Turn!
1. 9
2. In how many ways can seven students be arranged in a line?
8.5. PERMUTATION OF DIFFERENT OBJECTS TAKEN AT A TIME
 The number of permutation of a set of objects taken at a time denoted by is given by
 In the formula, . The formula does not make sense if . Try to see for yourself is invalid when
Example 3: Solution:
Evaluate.
2. 2
1. 4
2
1. 2 4
¿ 1 680 ¿ 90
Example 4:
A class is to select a president, a vice – president, a secretary, and a treasurer from 7 class
members. How many arrangements of class officers are possible?
Statistics and Probability | Lesson 8: Permutations 19

Solution:
The number of permutation of 7 class members taken 4 at a time is given by . Thus,
Example 5:
The Philippines is know as a land of beauty queens. Suppose there are 5 finalist in a beauty
pageant. How many ways can the top 3 winners be selected?
Solution:
Since the number of permutation of 5 finalist taken 3 at a time is given by . Thus,
Your
1. In Turn!
how many ways can 9 passengers be seated in a bus if there are only 5 seats
available?
2. In how many ways can the president, the vice president, and the secretary be elected from
a group with 20 students?
3. In how many ways can seven participants in a race place first, second, and third?
8.6. PERMUTATION OF IDENTICAL OBJECTS
In the preceding examples section, it was established with the assumption that the
objects are distinct. There are some instances, when some objects cannot be distinguished from
one another since such objects are alike. Consider for example the letters from the word DADDY.
If the 3 D’s shall be distinguished from each other, then the total number of permutations that can
be formed from the letters of the given word is or 120 ways. But such is not the case since the
three D’s are alike. Thus, we have to develop a formula that shall suit this situation.
The number of permutation of a set of objects taken altogether, where are of one kind, are of the
other kind, and so on is given by:
Example 6:
Determine the number of permutations that can be formed using the letters of the word DADDY.
Solution:
The value of is 5. We let be the number of D’s , be the number of A’s and be the number of Y’s.
Hence, we can say that , and . Using the formula given
Therefore, we can say that there are only 20 possible permutations instead of 120.
Statistics and Probability | Lesson 8: Permutations 20

Example 7:
In how many ways can 3 copies of Carpenter’s Algebra, 5 copies of Leithold’s Calculus, and 7
copies of Tan’s Trigonometry be arranged on a shelf?
Solution:
From the given conditions, we can say that , and . Using the formula given
Therefore, we can say that there are 360, 360 possible permutations.
Example 8:
Find the total 7 – digit numbers that can be formed using all the digits in the following numerals
5771535.
Solution:
From the given conditions, we can say that
(number of 5’s)
(number of 7”s)
(number of 1’s)
(number of 3’s)
Using the formula given
Therefore, we can say that there are 420 possible permutations.
Your
Turn!
1. The covered walk of a school is to be lined with flags. How many different arrangements
are there of the 10 flags if 5 are blue, 3 are red, and 2 are white?
2. How many different 9 letter words (real or imaginary) can be formed from the letters in the
word COMMITTEE?
3. How many different 8 letter words can be formed from the letters in the word
COOKBOOK?
8.7. COMBINATION
The number of different arrangement of objects using of them, in which:

a. the objects are distinct.
b. once an object is used, it cannot be repeated, and
c. order is not important.
is given by the formula
Statistics and Probability | Lesson 8: Permutations and Combinations 21

Example 9:
How many combinations can be made from H, O, P, E if the letters are taken
a. one at a time?
b. two at a time?
c. three at a time?
d. four at a time?
Solution:
a. There are 4 combinations: H, O, P, E c. When the letters are taken 3 at a time,
there are 4 combinations.
The possible combinations are HOP, HOE,

HPE, and OPE
b. When the letters are taken 2 at a time, d. When the letters are taken 4 at a time, there
there are 6 combinations. are 1 combination.
The possible combinations are HO, HP, HE, The possible combination is HOPE
OP, OE, and PE
Example 9:
How many different committees of 4 people can be formed from a pool of 7 people?
Solution to Example #9:

The order of being selected for a committee is not significant.
Thus, the problem asks for the combination of 7 objects taken 5 at a time.
Example 10:
In how many ways can a team consisting of 2
boys and 3 girls be formed if 6 boys and 10
Your
girls qualified to be in the team?
Turn!
1. How many combinations can be made from B,
Solution to Example #10: E, A, U, T, Y if the letters are taken
The problem can be separated into two parts: a. one at a time?
the number of ways the boys can be chosen, , b. two at a time?
and the number of ways the girls can be c. three at a time?
chosen, . The team can be formed in d. four at a time?
e. five at a time?
f. six at a time?
2. How many different committees of 5 people can

be formed from a pool of 9 people?
3. In how many ways can a committee consisting

of 3 teachers and 3 students be formed if there
are 5 teachers and 6 students to choose from?
Statistics and Probability | Lesson 8: Combinations 22

Statistics and Probability | Lesson 4: Measures of Central Tendency for Grouped Data 24
2. Get the value of and determine the median class.
𝑛 60
= =30
2 2
If the 60 data values are arranged from lowest to highest, the median is at 30 th
place.
Looking at the of the distribution, we can see that the class interval 47 – 58 contains the
30 position. 47 – 58 contains the 20 th, 21st, … , 30th until the 38th data values. Thus, 47 – 58 is
th
the median class.
Scores Class Boundaries

11 – 22 3 10.5 – 22.5 3
23 – 34 5 22.5 – 34.5 8
35 – 46 11 34.5 – 46.5 19
This is the median 47 – 58 19 46.5 – 58.5 38

class. 59 – 70 14 58.5 – 70.5 52
71 – 82 6 70.5 – 82.5 58
83 – 94 2 82.5 – 94. 5 60
3. Determine the frequency of the median class (.

11 – 22 3 10.5 – 22.5 3
23 – 34 5 22.5 – 34.5 8
35 – 46 11 34.5 – 46.5 19
47 – 58 19 46.5 – 58.5 38
59 – 70 14 58.5 – 70.5 52
71 – 82 6 70.5 – 82.5 58
This is the value of
83 – 94 2 82.5 – 94. 5 60
4. Identify the lower – class boundaries, the cumulative frequency before () and the size of
the class interval.
To identify the value of , we have to look at the class interval BEFORE the median
class.
11 – 22 3 10.5 – 22.5 3
This is the class 23 – 34 5 22.5 – 34.5 8 This is the value
BEFORE the
35 – 46 11 34.5 – 46.5 19 of
median class.
47 – 58 19 46.5 – 58.5 38
59 – 70 14 58.5 – 70.5 52
71 – 82 6 70.5 – 82.5 58
This is the 83 – 94 2 82.5 – 94. 5 60
median
class. This is the lower boundary of
the median class.
Since 19 the less than cumulative frequency of 35 – 46, which is the class BEFORE the
median class, we have . Lastly, notice that the class width is 12. So, .
5. Substitute the values obtained in steps 2 – 4 to Eqn. 4.3.
Example 7:
Consider the frequency distribution.
Frequency Distribution of the Efficiency Ratings of 155 Faculty Members of ABC College.
Efficiency Rating Number of Faculty Members

73 – 75 2
76 – 78 6
79 – 81 12
81 – 84 16
85 – 87 18
88 - 90 39
91 – 93 36
94 – 96 21
97 – 99 5
Determine the median of the distribution above.
Solution:
1. Determine the class boundaries of each class intervals and the less than cumulative
frequency.
Class Intervals Class Boundaries

73 – 75 2 72.5 – 75.5 2
76 – 78 6 75.5 – 78. 5 8
79 – 81 12 78.5 – 81.5 20
81 – 84 16 81.5 – 84.5 36
85 – 87 18 84.5 – 87.5 54
88 - 90 39 87.5 – 90.5 93
91 – 93 36 90.5 – 93.5 129
94 – 96 21 93.5 – 96.5 150
97 – 99 5 96.5 – 99.5 155
2. Get the value of and determine the median class.
𝑛 155
= =78.5
2 2
Thus, if the 155 data values are arranged from lowest to highest, the median is at 78 th
place.
Looking at the of the distribution, we can see that the class interval 88 – 90 contains the
78 position. 88 – 90 contains the 55 th, 56th, … , 92nd and 93rd data values. Thus, 88 – 90 is the
th
median class.

73 – 75 2 72.5 – 75.5 2
76 – 78 6 75.5 – 78. 5 8
79 – 81 12 78.5 – 81.5 20
81 – 84 16 81.5 – 84.5 36
85 – 87 18 84.5 – 87.5 54
88 - 90 39 87.5 – 90.5 93
This is the median
class. 91 – 93 36 90.5 – 93.5 129
94 – 96 21 93.5 – 96.5 150
97 – 99 5 96.5 – 99.5 155
3. Determine the frequency of the median class (.

73 – 75 2 72.5 – 75.5 2
76 – 78 6 75.5 – 78. 5 8
79 – 81 12 78.5 – 81.5 20
81 – 84 16 81.5 – 84.5 36
85 – 87 18 84.5 – 87.5 54
88 - 90 39 87.5 – 90.5 93
This is the value of 91 – 93 36 90.5 – 93.5 129

94 – 96 21 93.5 – 96.5 150
97 – 99 5 96.5 – 99.5 155
4. Identify the lower – class boundaries, the cumulative frequency before () and the size of
the class interval.
To identify the value of , we have to look at the class interval BEFORE the median
class.
73 – 75 2 72.5 – 75.5 2
76 – 78 6 75.5 – 78. 5 8
79 – 81 12 78.5 – 81.5 20
This is the class 81 – 84 16 81.5 – 84.5 36 This is the value
BEFORE the
85 – 87 18 84.5 – 87.5 54 of
median class.
88 - 90 39 87.5 – 90.5 93
91 – 93 36 90.5 – 93.5 129
94 – 96 21 93.5 – 96.5 150
This is the 97 – 99 5 96.5 – 99.5 155
median
class. This is the lower boundary of
the median class.
Since 54 the less than cumulative frequency of 88 – 90, which is the class BEFORE the
median class, we have . Lastly, notice that the class width is 3. So, .
5. Substitute the values obtained in steps 2 – 4 to Eqn. 4.3.
Your
Turn!
A researcher is investigating regarding the income of the alumni of a certain university 5 years
after graduation. The monthly income of the 200 respondents were taken are presented below.
Income Number of Alumni

3,500 – 4,999 6
5,000 – 6,499 23
6,500 – 7,999 36
8,000 – 9,499 40
9,500 – 10,999 59
11,000 – 12,499 20
12,500 – 13,999 8
14,000 – 15,499 6
15,500 – 16,999 2
LABORATORY SCHOOL
Lucban, Quezon
Name: _______________________________ Date:

_______________________
______________________ Activity #2.3: MEDIAN OF GROUPED DATA
1. How did we get the class boundaries for the first and last class intervals?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2. Aside from the fact that class boundary (lower boundary to be specific) is used to apply
the formula the median, what do you think is the purpose of class boundaries?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
DO IT YOURSELF!
____________________________________________________________________
Compute the median of the following sets of data. Show all the necessary solutions.
____________________________________________________________________
1. Frequency Distribution Table of Ages 2. Examination Results of 60 Students
of 210 Qualified Voters of Brgy. XYZ. in a Spanish Class
Ages Number of Voters Scores Number of Students

18 – 23 16 10 – 19 2
24 – 29 25 20 – 29 7
30 – 35 39 30 – 39 23
36 – 41 46 40 – 49 11
42 – 47 30 50 – 59 8
48 – 53 20 60 – 69 6
54 – 59 15 70 – 79 2
60 – 65 8 80 – 89 1
66 – 71 7
72 – 77 4
Statistics and Probability | Activity 2.3: Median of Grouped Data 29

4.6. MODE OF GROUPED DATA
In this lesson, we will discuss the formula that approximates the mode of a given
distribution. As you learned, a distribution may have more than one mode, or it may not have a
mode at all. However, for the purpose of this discussion, we will make one assumption: a
distribution has one reasonable value of mode.
Since we are dealing with grouped data, it is impossible to determine the actual
value(s) of mode if there is any. The best that we can do is to find a reasonable value of a mode
might be. The following formula shall be used in finding that mode.
The mode of grouped data can be calculated using the formula (EMPIRICAL FORMULA):
Eqn. 4.4
Where:
is the lower Boundary of the Modal Class
is the difference between the frequency of the modal class and the frequency of the class before
the modal class.
is the difference between the frequency of the modal class and the frequency of the class after
the modal class.
c is the class Width
4.7. MODE OF GROUPED DATA: STEP – BY – STEP PROCEDURE
To be able to solve the mode of grouped data, we will follow the steps given below.
1. Determine the modal class.

2. Get the value of .
3. Get the value of .
4. Determine the lower – class boundary of the modal class.
5. Apply the formula by substituting the values obtained in the preceding steps.
Example 8:
Frequency Distribution of the NCEE Scores of First Year College Students of ABC College
Scores Number of Students

43 – 49 9
50 – 56 13
57 – 63 15
64 – 70 25
71 – 77 16
78 – 84 10
85 – 91 8
92 – 98 4
Determine the mode of the distribution above.
MODAL CLASS
The modal class of a distribution is the class interval with the highest frequency.
KEYPOINTS:
 As much as it is possible to have more than one mode, just like what we tackled before, it is
also possible to have more than one class intervals that contain the highest frequency.
 To avoid having “more than one modal class”, modification of table is needed. One possible
modification is combining class intervals until we obtain exactly one class intervals with the
highest frequency.
 For the purpose of this discussion, we will only cover examples with exactly one modal class.
Solution:
1. Determine the modal class. It is easy to see that the class interval has the highest frequency.
Therefore, it is the modal class.
Class Intervals
43 – 49 9
This is the modal class 50 – 56 13

since it has the highest 57 – 63 15
frequency
64 – 70 25
71 – 77 16
78 – 84 10
85 – 91 8
92 – 98 4
2. Get the value of . To identify the , we need to look at the class interval before the modal
class.
Class Intervals
43 – 49 9
This is the class 50 – 56 13
BEFORE the modal
57 – 63 15
class Their difference is
64 – 70 25 the value of .
This is the modal 71 – 77 16

class. 78 – 84 10
85 – 91 8
92 – 98 4
Thus, . Moreover, to get the value of we need to look at the class interval after the modal
class.
3. Get the value of . To identify the , we need to look at the class interval after the modal class.
Class Intervals
43 – 49 9
50 – 56 13

class. 64 – 70 25
Their difference is
71 – 77 16 the value of .
This is the class AFTER 78 – 84 10
the modal class
85 – 91 8
92 – 98 4
Hence,

43 – 49 9 42.5 – 49.5
50 – 56 13 49.5 – 56.5
57 – 63 15 56.5 – 63.5
64 – 70 25 63.5 – 70.5
71 – 77 16 70.5 – 77.5
78 – 84 10 77.5 – 84.5
85 – 91 8 84.5 – 91.5
92 – 98 4 91.5 – 98.5
This is the lower boundary of the

modal class.
Example 9:
Frequency distribution table of Height of Teachers in ABC College
Height (in cm) Number of Teachers

140 – 144 2
145 – 149 17
150 – 154 14
155 – 159 21
160 – 164 11
165 – 169 8
170 – 174 5
175 – 179 2
Determine the mode of the distribution above.
Solution:
1. Determine the modal class. It is easy to see that the class interval has the highest frequency.
Therefore, it is the modal class.
Class Intervals
140 – 144 2
This is the modal class 145 – 149 17

since it has the highest 150 – 154 14
frequency
155 – 159 21
160 – 164 11
165 – 169 8
170 – 174 5
175 – 179 2
2. Get the value of . To identify the , we need to look at the class interval before the modal
class.
Class Intervals
140 – 144 2
This is the class 145 – 149 17
BEFORE the modal
class
150 – 154 14 Their difference is
155 – 159 21 the value of .
class. 165 – 169 8
170 – 174 5
175 – 179 2
Thus, . Moreover, to get the value of we need to look at the class interval after the modal
class.
3. Get the value of . To identify the , we need to look at the class interval after the modal class.
Class Intervals
140 – 144 2
145 – 149 17
150 – 154 14
This is the modal
class. 155 – 159 21
Their difference is
160 – 164 11 the value of .
This is the class AFTER 165 – 169 8

the modal class 170 – 174 5
175 – 179 2
Hence,

140 – 144 2 139.5 – 144.5
145 – 149 17 144.5 – 149.5
150 – 154 14 149.5 – 154.5
155 – 159 21 154.5 – 159.5
160 – 164 11 159.5 – 164.5
165 – 169 8 164.5 – 169.5
170 – 174 5 169.5 – 174.5
175 – 179 2 174.5 – 179.5
This is the lower boundary of the

modal class.
Your
Turn!
Calculate the mode of the frequency distribution given in YOUR TURN page 57. Show all the
necessary solutions needed.
LABORATORY SCHOOL
Lucban, Quezon
Name: _______________________________ Date:

_______________________
______________________Activity #2.4: MODE OF GROUPED DATA
1. Is it possible for the actual mode of the distribution to be found outside the modal
class? Why? If yes, provide a specific example. If no, explain why not.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
DO IT YOURSELF!
____________________________________________________________________
Compute the mode of the following sets of data. Show all the necessary solutions.
1. ____________________________________________________________________
Frequency Distribution Table of Ages
2. Examination Results of 60 Students
of 210 Qualified Voters of Brgy. XYZ.
in a Spanish Class
Ages Number of Voters Scores Number of Students
18 – 23 16 10 – 19 2
24 – 29 25 20 – 29 7
30 – 35 39 30 – 39 23
36 – 41 46 40 – 49 11
42 – 47 30 50 – 59 8
48 – 53 20 60 – 69 6
54 – 59 15 70 – 79 2
60 – 65 8 80 – 89 1
66 – 71 7
72 – 77 4
Statistics and Probability | Activity 2.4: Mode of Grouped Data 35

MEASURES OF variation
5 FOR UNGROUPED DATA
What
You’ll
 Compare and contrast the variance and standard deviation.
 Calculate the variance and standard deviation of a set of ungrouped data.
Learn
One of the most important tools in analyzing data, along with the measures of central
tendency, is the concept of measures of variability. While the measures of central tendency
help us to locate the center or average of the distribution, measures of variability tell us the
degree of spread around the center. In other words, measures of variability tell us how the
data are “scattered”.
In this lesson, we will focus on what is the most important measure of variability – the
standard deviation. While there are a lot of measures of variability (e.g., range, absolute
deviation), standard deviation is helpful in carrying out more advanced statistical analysis in
the future.
To begin, let us consider the following:
QUIZ NUMBER (50 items)

Students
1 2 3 4 5
John 40 38 49 43 40
Peter 41 41 44 42 42
Mike 42 42 42 42 42
Using the mean as our average, you will notice that three students have the same
mean. Their scores have an average of . In other words, if we use mean, the scores of the three
students have the same center. However, it is obvious that the sets of scores are NOT the
same. At one glance, you will notice that a set is more scattered than the others.
To be, notice that Mike’s set of scores is the most consistent. Moreover, he consistently
scored 42 in all of the five quizzes. Thus, we can say that Mike’s score has the least degree of
variability among the three sets of scores. In other words, his scores are the least scattered
ones.
On the other hand, it is very easy to spot that between Peter and John, Peter’s scores are
less scattered than John’s. In other words, Peter’s scores have lesser degree of variability
that John’s. Putting of these together, we can say that John’s scores are most scattered ones.
Therefore, while the three students have the same average, they have different degree of
variability. John has the greatest degree of variability; it is followed by Peter; and then followed
by Mike.
KEYPOINTS: LESSER VARIABILITY means MORE CONSISTENCY (and vice versa)

 Greater degree of variability means that the scores are more scattered.
 On the other hand, if a set of data has lesser degree of variability, the scores less
scattered. That is, the scores are more consistent.
Statistics and Probability | Lesson 5: Measures of Variation for Ungrouped Data 36

Let us now formally determine the degree of variability of a set of data by
computing the important steppingstone:
5.1. VARIANCE OF UNGROUPED DATA

The variance of a distribution denoted by 𝑠2, can be calculated using the formula:
Eqn. 5.1
where:
is the mean of the distribution
𝑥 represents the individual scores of the distribution
𝑛 is the number of data values in the distribution
KEYPOINTS:
 Do NOT be confused with the meaning of 𝑥 in the formula. In the context of ungrouped
data, 𝒙 means individual scores. On the other hand, in the context of grouped data, 𝒙 means
midpoints.
 In organizing the data for the computation of the variance, the first column is labelled as 𝑥. All
individual scores of the distribution are contained in this column.
5.2. VARIANCE OF UNGROUPED DATA: STEP – BY – STEP PROCEDURE
To be able to solve the variance of ungrouped data, we will follow the steps given
below.
1. Compute the value of the mean.

2. Construct a column and labelled it as and get the deviation of each value from the mean
(difference between the individual scores and the mean).
3. Square the deviations.
4. Get the summation of the squared deviation.
5. Substitute the pertinent values to the given formula.
Example 10:
Ten students took a special examination (with 30 items) in Mathematics. Their scores are the
following:
22 12 29 17 10
24 30 21 30 25
Calculate the variance of the scores.
Solution:
We can compute for the value of mean () getting the summation of the given values and
divide it by the total number of values.

22 22 – 22 0
24 24 – 22 2
12 12 – 22 -10
30 30 – 22 8
29 29 – 22 7
21 21 – 22 -1
17 17 – 22 -5
30 30 – 22 8
10 10 – 22 -12
25 25 – 22 3
22 0 0
24 2 4
For example,
12 -10 100
30 8 64
29 7 49
21 -1 1
17 -5 25
For example,
30 8 64
10 -12 144
25 3 9
22 0 0
24 2 4
12 -10 100
30 8 64
29 7 49
21 -1 1
17 -5 25
30 8 64
10 -12 144 It is the sum of all
25 3 9 entries of the column

So, the variance of the scores of the ten students is 51.11.
Now that we already covered the computation of variance, which I noted to be an

important steppingstone, we are now ready to tackle the standard deviation.
5.4. STANDARD DEVIATION OF UNGROUPED DATA

The standard deviation of a distribution, denoted by 𝑠, is simply the square root of the
variance. That is,
Eqn. 5.1
KEYPOINTS:
 Procedurally, we need to know the variance first before computing the standard deviation.
 The greater the standard deviation is, the greater the degree of variability of the scores is
a distribution.
Example 11:
Ten students took a special examination (with 30 items) in Mathematics. Their scores are the
following:
22 12 29 17 10
24 30 21 30 25
Calculate the standard deviation of the scores.
Solution:
From Example 10, we already found out that the variance is 51.11. Hence, the
standard deviation of the scores is:
Thus, the standard deviation of the scores is 7.15.
Example 12:
Consider the following measurements
13 7 10 15
5 9 17 12
Calculate the variance of the measurements.

Solution:
We can compute for the value of mean () getting the summation of the given values and
divide it by the total number of values.
13 13 – 11 2
5 5 – 11 -6
7 7 – 11 -4
9 9 – 11 -2
10 10 – 11 -1
17 17 – 11 6
15 15 – 11 4
12 12 – 11 1
13 2 4
5 -6 36
7 -4 16
9 -2 4
10 -1 1
17 6 36
15 4 16
12 1 1
13 2 4
5 -6 36
7 -4 16
9 -2 4
10 -1 1
17 6 36
15 4 16
12 1 1

So, the variance of the scores of the ten students is 14.25.
Example 13:
Consider the following measurements
13 7 10 15
5 9 17 12
Calculate the standard deviation of the measurements.
Solution:
From Example 12, we already found out that the variance is 14.25. Hence, the
standard deviation of the scores is:
Your
Turn!
Fifteen students measured their heights (in cm) and recorded as follows.
137 151 131 129 180

147 145 130 177 144
132 130 162 173 123
Calculate the variance and standard deviation of the heights of the students. Show all the
necessary solutions needed.

LABORATORY SCHOOL
Lucban, Quezon
Name: _______________________________ Date:

_______________________
______________________
Activity #2.5: MEASURES OF VARIATION OF UNGROUPED DATA
1. Suppose that the scores in a distribution are identical, what is the value of the
standard deviation? Provide a short explanation or solution that supports your
answer.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
DO IT YOURSELF!
____________________________________________________________________
Compute the variance and standard deviation of the following sets of data. Show all
the necessary solutions.
____________________________________________________________________
1. Scores of 20 students in a 50 - item quiz in Science
29 23 46 23 41 37 50 26 27 42
35 26 50 20 31 23 40 28 40 24
2. Temperature of a room (in Celsius) in during 15 – day period.
33 21 30 32 33
27 22 31 35 24
33 20 27 24 32
3. Daily allowance (in peso) of 25 students.
165 114 50 91 93
152 143 120 76 149
98 109 104 110 153
170 113 91 158 75
148 166 74 167 123
Statistics and Probability | Activity 2.5: Measures of Variation of Ungrouped Data 42

MEASURES OF variation
6 FOR GROUPED DATA
What
You’ll
 Calculate the variance and standard deviation of a set of grouped data.
ThisLearn
lesson is simply the continuation of what were discussed in Lesson 5 of this
module. For this lesson, we will cover the methods of computing the standard deviation of data
presented in frequency distribution table.
6.1. VARIANCE OF GROUPED DATA

The variance of a distribution denoted by 𝑠2, can be calculated using the formula:
Eqn. 6.1
where:
is the mean of the distribution
𝑥 represents the midpoint of each class interval of the distribution
𝑓 represents the frequency of each class interval of the distribution
𝑛 is the total frequency
6.2. STANDARD DEVIATION OF GROUPED DATA

The standard deviation of a distribution, denoted by 𝑠, is simply the square root of the
variance. That is,
Eqn. 6.2
6.3. VARIANCE OF GROUPED DATA: STEP – BY – STEP PROCEDURE
To be able to solve the variance of grouped data, we will follow the steps given below.
1. Compute the midpoint of each class intervals. Recall the formula in computing the midpoint.
3. Get the deviation of each value from the mean (difference between the midpoint and the
mean).
4. Square the deviations obtained in step 3.
5. Multiply the frequencies by their corresponding squared deviation and get their summation
Statistics and Probability | Lesson 6: Measures of Variation for Grouped Data 43

Example 14:
Consider the following set of data.
Frequency Distribution of the Examination Scores of Sixty Students in a Statistics Class.

11 – 22 3
23 – 34 5
35 – 46 11
47 – 58 19
59 – 70 14
71 – 82 6
Calculate the variance and standard
83 – 94 deviation of the distribution
2 above.
Solution:
1. Compute the midpoint of each class intervals.
Class Intervals
11 – 22 3 16.5
The midpoints are contained in
23 – 34 5 28.5 this column
35 – 46 11 40.5 Don’t be confused of the here,

this is the midpoints of each
47 – 58 19 52.5 class intervals.
59 – 70 14 64.5
71 – 82 6 76.5
83 – 94 2 88.5
Class Intervals
11 – 22 3 16.5 49.5
23 – 34 5 28.5 142.5
35 – 46 11 40.5 445.5
47 – 58 19 52.5 997.5
59 – 70 14 64.5 903
71 – 82 6 76.5 459
83 – 94 2 88.5 177
Therefore, the mean is 52.90.

mean).
Class Intervals
11 – 22 3 16.5 -36.4
For instance, 16.5 − 52.9 = −36.4
23 – 34 5 28.5 -24.4
35 – 46 11 40.5 -12.4
52.5 -0.4 For instance, 52.5 − 52.9 = −0.4
47 – 58 19
59 – 70 14 64.5 11.6
For instance, 88.5 − 52.9 = 35.6
71 – 82 6 76.5 23.6
83 – 94 2 88.5 35.6
Class Intervals
11 – 22 3 16.5 -36.4 1324.96 For instance, (−36.4)2 = 1324.96
23 – 34 5 28.5 -24.4 595.36
35 – 46 11 40.5 -12.4 153.76

For instance, (0.4)2 = 0.16
47 – 58 19 52.5 -0.4 0.16
59 – 70 14 64.5 11.6 134.56

71 – 82 6 76.5 23.6 556.96
For instance, (35.6)2 = 1267.36
83 – 94 2 88.5 35.6 1267.36
5. Multiply the frequencies by their corresponding squared deviation and get their
summation
Multiply the entries of these
columns to get the entries of the last
column.
Class Intervals
11 – 22 3 16.5 -36.4 1324.96 3974.88
23 – 34 5 28.5 -24.4 595.36 2976.8
35 – 46 11 40.5 -12.4 153.76 1691.36

47 – 58 19 52.5 -0.4 0.16 3.04
59 – 70 14 64.5 11.6 134.56 1883.84

71 – 82 6 76.5 23.6 556.96 3341.76
83 – 94 2 88.5 35.6 1267.36 2534.72
This is the required sum

𝑠=
∑
2 𝑓 ( 𝑥 − 𝑥)
2
𝑛 −1
So, the variance of the scores of the ten students is 278.07
Hence, the standard deviation is:
Example 15:
Consider the following set of data.
Frequency Distribution Table of the Scores of 45 Students (Section B) in Mathematics

7 – 15 8
16 - 24 1
25 – 33 14
34 – 42 12
43 – 51 4
52 – 60 deviation of the distribution
Calculate the variance and standard 6 above.
Solution:
1. Compute the midpoint of each class intervals.
Class Intervals
7 – 15 8 11
16 - 24 1 20
25 – 33 14 29
34 – 42 12 38
43 – 51 4 47
52 – 60 6 56
Class Intervals
7 – 15 8 11 88
16 - 24 1 20 20
25 – 33 14 29 406
34 – 42 12 38 456
43 – 51 4 47 329 Therefore, the mean is 36.33.
52 – 60 6 56 336

mean).
Class Intervals
7 – 15 8 11 -25.33
16 - 24 1 20 -16.33
25 – 33 14 29 -7.33
34 – 42 12 38 1.67
43 – 51 4 47 10.67
52 – 60 6 56 19.67
Class Intervals
7 – 15 8 11 -25.33 641.61
16 - 24 1 20 -16.33 266.67
25 – 33 14 29 -7.33 53.73
34 – 42 12 38 1.67 2.79
43 – 51 4 47 10.67 113.85
52 – 60 6 56 19.67 386.91
5. Multiply the frequencies by their corresponding squared deviation and get their
summation
Class Intervals
7 – 15 8 11 -25.33 641.61 5132.87
16 - 24 1 20 -16.33 266.67 266.67
25 – 33 14 29 -7.33 53.73 752.20

34 – 42 12 38 1.67 2.79 33.47
43 – 51 4 47 10.67 113.85 455.40

52 – 60 6 56 19.67 386.91 2321.45

2
𝑠=
∑ 𝑓 ( 𝑥 − 𝑥)
2
𝑛 −1
So, the variance of the scores of the ten students is 203.68
Hence, the standard deviation is:

LABORATORY SCHOOL
Lucban, Quezon
Name: _______________________________ Date:

_______________________
______________________
Activity #2.6: MEASURES OF VARIATION OF GROUPED DATA
1. Under what circumstance does a distribution with grouped data have a “zero
standard deviation”? Provide an explanation or solution that supports your answer.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
DO IT YOURSELF!
____________________________________________________________________
Compute the variance and standard deviation of the following sets of data. Show all
the necessary solutions.
____________________________________________________________________
1. Frequency Distribution Table of the Scores of 50 Students (Section A) in Mathematics
Number of
Scores Students
7 – 15 2
16 - 24 10
25 – 33 11
34 – 42 8
43 – 51 12
52 – 60 7
𝑛 = 50
2. Frequency Distribution of the NCEE Scores of First Year College Students of ABC
College
Scores Number of
Students
43 – 49 9
50 – 56 13
57 – 63 15
64 – 70 25
71 – 77 16
78 – 84 10
85 – 91 8
92 – 98 4
Statistics and Probability | Activity 2.5: Measures of Variation of Ungrouped Data 48

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Experiments and sample space

9.1. THE CONCEPT OF CHANGE

Will our team

Statistics and Probability | Lesson 9: Experiment and Sample Space 1

9.2. PROBABILITY EXPERIMENTS AND SAMPLE SPACE

Drawing a card at random from a set of

Statistics and Probability | Lesson 9: Experiment and Sample Space 2

c. Flipping a coin d. Drawing a card at random from a

c. Tossing a standard octahedral (8 –

Statistics and Probability | Lesson 9: Experiment and Sample Space 3

Name: _______________________________ Date:

B. Tick the event that is more likely to happen.

Statistics and Probability | Activity 4.1: Experiments and Sample Space 4

16. Most likely: _____________

18. Most likely: _____________

21. Minnie tosses a standard tetrahedral die marked 1 – 4.

Statistics and Probability | Activity 4.1: Experiments and Sample Space 5

10.1 PROBABILITY OF AN EVENT

Why a coin is tossed, how likely is to get a head?

In a sample space of equally likely outcomes, the probability of an event, denoted as , is

Statistics and Probability | Lesson 9: Understanding Probability 6

Statistics and Probability | Lesson 9: Understanding Probability 7

Name: _______________________________ Date:

Name: _______________________________ Date:

DO IT YOURSELF! Show you solution.

The 19th score is 15.

But the score

Let us identify the values needed to compute the 9 th quartile

Therefore, the value of 9 th decile is 20.

Statistics and Probability | Lesson 7: Measures of Position for Ungrouped Data 5

The 25.5th score is 19.

But the score

a. Find the value of the , and .

A percentile rank is the proportion of scores in a distribution that is below a specific

Statistics and Probability | Lesson 7: Measures of Position for Ungrouped Data 6

a. Who stands in the middle of the line?

6.5th height = 6th height + 0.5 (7th height –

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0.7 (12) + 0.5

8.9th height = 8th height + 0.9 (9th height –

0.75 (12) + 0.5

3.5th height = 3rd height + 0.5 (4th height –

a. Find the median

Statistics and Probability | Lesson 7: Measures of Position for Ungrouped Data 8

The 13th weight () is 50.5 kg. The 14 th height () is 51.8 cm.

13.25th weight = 13th weight + 0.25 (14th

8.1. USING TREE DIAGRAMS

1st Stop 2nd Stop 3rd Stop

Statistics and Probability | Lesson 8: Counting Techniques – Tree Diagrams 11

1. Manila – Cebu – Davao

There are 8 possible ways to answer the 2 – item questions.

Statistics and Probability | Lesson 8: Counting Techniques – Tree Diagrams 12

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Concert Tour Schedule

Do you see a more efficient way of counting?

Fundamental Counting Principle (FCP)

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Let us make an organized list.

Statistics and Probability | Lesson 8: Counting Techniques – Fundamental Counting Principles 14

111 211 311 411