The OSI Model

Understanding the
Seven Layers of Computer Networks
Introduction

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)

model is a reference tool for understanding
data communications between any two
networked systems.

It divides the communications processes into

seven layers.

Each layer both performs specific functions to

support the layers above it and offers services
to the layers below it.

The three lowest layers focus on passing traffic

through the network to an end system.

The top four layers come into play in the end

system to complete the process.
An Overview of the OSI Model

A networking model offers a generic

means to separate computer
networking functions into multiple
layers.
Each of these layers relies on the
layers below it to provide
supporting capabilities and
performs support to the layers
above it.
Such a model of layered
functionality is also called a
“protocol stack” or “protocol suite”.

The Open System Interconnection model

Protocols, or rules, can do their is a seven-layer structure that specifies the
work in either hardware or requirements for communications
software or, as with most protocol between two computers.
stacks, in a combination of the The ISO (International Organization for
two. Standardization) standard 7498-1 defined
The nature of these stacks is that this model.
the lower layers do their work in This model allows all network elements to
hardware or firmware (software operate together, no matter who created
that runs on specific hardware the protocols and what computer vendor
chips) while the higher layers supports them.
work in software.
Layer 1 – The Physical Layer
The physical layer of the OSI model defines connector and interface
specifications, as well as the medium (cable) requirements. Electrical,
mechanical, functional, and procedural specifications are provided for
sending a bit stream on a computer network.

• Cabling system components • Wireless system

components
• Adapters that connect media to
Components of physical interfaces • Parallel SCSI (Small
the physical layer Computer System
• Connector design and pin
include: Interface)
assignments
• Network Interface Card
• Hub, repeater, and patch panel (NIC)
specifications
Layer 1 – The Physical Layer
In a LAN environment, Category 5e UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) cable is
generally used for the physical layer for individual device connections. Fiber
optic cabling is often used for the physical layer in a vertical or riser backbone
link. The IEEE, EIA/TIA, ANSI, and other similar standards bodies developed
standards for this layer.

Note: The Physical Layer of the OSI model is only part of a LAN
(Local Area Network).
Layer 2 – The Data Link Layer

Layer 2 of the OSI model provides the following functions:

• Allows a device to access the network to send and receive messages
• Offers a physical address so a device’s data can be sent on the network
• Works with a device’s networking software when sending and receiving
messages
• Provides error-detection capability
Layer 2 – The Data Link Layer

1
Common networking components that
function at layer 2 include:
• Network interface cards
• Ethernet and Token Ring switches
3
• Bridges
• Bridges and switches function in a
similar fashion; however, bridging is
normally a software program on a
CPU,
• while switches use Application-
Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)
to perform the task in dedicated
hardware, which is much faster.
2
• NICs have a layer 2 or MAC address.
• A switch uses this address to filter
and forward traffic, helping relieve
congestion and collisions on a
network segment.
Layer 3 – The Network Layer

• Layer 3, the network layer of the OSI model, provides an end-to-end logical
addressing system so that a packet of data can be routed across several layer 2
networks (Ethernet, Token Ring, Frame Relay, etc.).
• Note that network layer addresses can also be referred to as logical addresses.
Layer 3 – The Network Layer
1
Initially, software manufacturers, such as Novell,
developed proprietary layer 3 addressing.
However, the networking industry has evolved to Routers use the network or
the point that it requires a common layer 3 subnet portion of the IP
addressing system. addressing to route traffic
between different networks.
The Internet Protocol (IP) addresses make
networks easier to both set up and connect with one Each router must be configured
another. specifically for the networks or
subnets that will be connected
The Internet uses IP addressing to provide to its interfaces.
connectivity to millions of networks around the
world.

3
2
To make it easier to manage the network and
control the flow of packets, many organizations
separate their network layer addressing into
smaller parts known as subnets.
Layer 3 – The Network Layer
4
Routers communicate with one another using
routing protocols, such as Routing Information The network layer accomplishes
Protocol (RIP) and Open version of Shortest Path this via a process known as
First (OSPF), fragmentation.

To learn of other networks that are present and to A router’s network layer is usually
calculate the best way to reach each network based responsible for doing the
on a variety of criteria (such as the path with the fragmentation.
fewest routers). All reassembly of fragmented
Routers and other networked systems make these packets happens at the network
routing decisions at the network layer. layer of the final destination system.

6
5
When passing packets between different
networks, it may become necessary to adjust their
outbound size to one that is compatible with the
layer 2 protocol that is being used.
Layer 3 – The Network Layer
7
Two of the additional functions of the network
layer are diagnostics and the reporting of logical
variations in normal network operation.
While the network layer diagnostics may be
initiated by any networked system, the system
8
discovering the variation reports it to the original
Some basic security functionality
sender of the packet that is found to be outside
can also be set up by filtering
normal network operation.
traffic using layer 3 addressing
The variation reporting exception is content on routers or other similar
validation calculations. If the calculation done by devices.
the receiving system does not match the value sent
by the originating system, the receiver discards the
related packet with no report to the sender.
Retransmission is left to a higher layer’s protocol.
Layer 4 – The Transport Layer

• Layer 4, the transport layer of the OSI

model, offers end-to-end communication The most common transport layer
between end devices through a network. protocols are the connection-oriented
• Depending on the application, the transport TCP Transmission Control Protocol
layer either offers reliable, connection- (TCP) and the connectionless UDP
oriented or connectionless, best-effort User Datagram Protocol (UDP).
communications.
Layer 4 – The Transport Layer

Some of the functions offered by the Control of data flow to prevent memory
transport layer include: overruns

Application identification Establishment and maintenance of both

ends of virtual circuits
Client-side entity identification
Transmission-error detection
Confirmation that the entire message
arrived intact Realignment of segmented data in the
correct order on the receiving side
Segmentation of data for network
transport Multiplexing or sharing of multiple sessions
over a single physical link
Layer 5 – The Session Layer

Functionality includes:
Virtual connection between
application entities
Synchronization of data flow
Creation of dialog units
Connection parameter
negotiations
Partitioning of services into
functional groups
Layer 5, the session layer, provides various Acknowledgements of data
services, including tracking the number of received during a session
bytes that each end of the session has
acknowledged receiving from the other end of Retransmission of data if it is
the session. not received by a device
This session layer allows applications
functioning on devices to establish, manage,
and terminate a dialog through a network.
Layer 6 – The Presentation Layer

Examples of presentation
layer functionality include:
• Encryption and decryption of a
message for security
• Compression and expansion of a
message so that it travels
efficiently

Layer 6, the presentation layer, is • Graphics formatting

responsible for how an application • Content translation
formats the data to be sent out onto the
• System-specific translation
network.
The presentation layer basically allows an
application to read (or understand) the
message.
Layer 7 – The Application Layer

• Layer 7, the application layer, provides

an interface for the end user operating a
device connected to a network.
• This layer is what the user sees, in terms of
loading an application (such as Web
browser or e-mail); that is, this application
layer is the data the user views while using
these applications.

• Examples of application layer functionality

include:
• Support for file transfers
• Ability to print on a network
• Electronic mail
• Electronic messaging
• Browsing the World Wide Web
Non-technical Layers – Layer 8
• Whether a designed to be a humorous
extension or a secret technician code, layers
8, 9, and 10 are not officially part of the OSI
model.
• They refer to the non-technical aspects of
computer networking that often interfere with
the smooth design and operation of the
network.

• Layer 8 is usually considered the “office

politics” layer. In most organizations, there is at
least one group who is favored, at least
temporarily, by management and receives
“special” treatment.
• When it comes to networking, this may mean
that this group always has the latest and/or
fastest equipment and highest speed network
links.
Non-technical Layers – Layer 9

• Layer 9 is generally referred to as the “blinders” layer.

• This layer applies to organizational managers who have
already decided, usually with little or no current information,
to dictate a previously successful network plan.
• They may say things such as:
• “It worked in my last company, so we will use it here.”
• “Everybody says this is the right solution.”
• “I read in an airline magazine that this was the best way to
do it so that is what we will do.”

• What these managers seem to forget is that they are paying a

highly qualified staff to provide them with useful
information.
• These managers bypass planning in order to make a quick
decision.
Non-technical Layers – Layer 10

• Layer 10, the “user” layer, is in every

organization. But users are much
more than a layer. While they are one
of the reasons the network exists,
users can also be a big part of the need
for troubleshooting.

• Equally challenging is the user who

“didn’t do anything” when the
network segment in his/her immediate
vicinity suddenly stopped working. In
these cases, the layer 10 identification
coincides with layer 10 troubles (and
the “ID10T” label some technicians
have used).
• This is especially true when the users
have computers at home and have
decided to “help” the network
administrator or manager by making
changes to the network without
consulting the network staff.
TCP/IP Model Overview
• The OSI model
describes computer
networking in seven
layers. 7 PROCESS
• While there have been LAYER
implementations of 6

TCP/IP LAYERS
networking protocol
that use those seven
layers, most networks 5 HOST TO HOST
today use TCP/IP.
LAYER

OSI
• But, networking 4
professionals continue
to describe networking 3 INTERNET LAYER
functions in relation to
the OSI layer that
performs those tasks. 2 NETWORK ACCES
LAYER
1
TCP/IP Model Overview

• The TCP/IP model uses • Things get a bit more • The TCP/IP process
four layers to perform complicated at the host- layer, when used with
the functions of the to-host layer of the TCP, provides the
seven-layer OSI model. TCP/IP model. functions of the OSI
model’s presentation
• The network access • If the host-to-host and application layers (6
layer is functionally protocol is TCP, the and 7).
equal to a combination matching functionality
of OSI physical and is found in the OSI • When the TCP/IP
data link layers (1 and transport and session transport layer protocol
2). layers (4 and 5). is UDP, the process
layer’s functions are
• The Internet layer • Using UDP equates to equivalent to OSI
performs the same the functions of only the session, presentation,
functions as the OSI transport layer of the and application layers
network layer (3). OSI model. (5, 6, and 7).
Equipment at the Layers

Some of the layers use

equipment to support the
identified functions. Hub
related activity is “Layer
One”.

Router functions focus on

“Layer Three”.
User workstations and
servers are often
identified with “Layer
Seven”.

The naming of some

devices designates the
functional layer such as
“Layer Two Switch” or
“Layer Three Switch”.