Unit 1
Unit 1
Interfacing Routing
Signal generation Recovery
data
entities that convey meaning
signals & signalling
electric or electromagnetic representations of
data, physically propagates along medium
transmission
communication of data by propagation and
processing of signals
Audio Signals
freq range 20Hz-20kHz (speech 100Hz-7kHz)
easily converted into electromagnetic signals
varying volume converted to varying voltage
can limit frequency range for voice channel to
300-3400Hz
Video Signals
USA - 483 lines per frame, at frames per sec
have 525 lines but 42 lost during vertical retrace
525 lines x 30 scans = 15750 lines per sec
63.5s per line
11s for retrace, so 52.5 s per video line
max frequency if line alternates black and white
horizontal resolution is about 450 lines giving
225 cycles of wave in 52.5 s
max frequency of 4.2MHz
Digital Data
as generated by computers etc.
has two dc components
bandwidth depends on data rate
Analog Signals
Digital Signals
Advantages & Disadvantages
of Digital Signals
cheaper
less susceptible to noise
but greater attenuation
digital now preferred choice
Signal Encoding Techniques
Digital Data, Digital Signal
Digital signal
discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses
each pulse is a signal element
binary data encoded into signal elements
Encoding Schemes
Nonreturn to Zero-Level
(NRZ-L)
two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits
voltage constant during bit interval
no transition I.e. no return to zero voltage
such as absence of voltage for zero, constant
positive voltage for one
more often, negative voltage for one value
and positive for the other
Nonreturn to Zero Inverted
nonreturn to zero inverted on ones
constant voltage pulse for duration of bit
data encoded as presence or absence of signal
transition at beginning of bit time
transition (low to high or high to low) denotes binary 1
no transition denotes binary 0
example of differential encoding since have
data represented by changes rather than levels
more reliable detection of transition rather than level
easy to lose sense of polarity
NRZ Pros & Cons
Pros
easy to engineer
make good use of bandwidth
Cons
dc component
lack of synchronization capability
used for magnetic recording
not often used for signal transmission
Multilevel Binary
Bipolar-AMI
Use more than two levels
Bipolar-AMI
zero represented by no line signal
one represented by positive or negative pulse
one pulses alternate in polarity
no loss of sync if a long string of ones
long runs of zeros still a problem
no net dc component
lower bandwidth
easy error detection
Manchester Encoding
has transition in middle of each bit period
transition serves as clock and data
low to high represents one
high to low represents zero
used by IEEE 802.
Differential Manchester
Encoding
midbit transition is clocking only
transition at start of bit period representing 0
no transition at start of bit period representing 1
this is a differential encoding scheme
used by IEEE 802.5
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Transmission Characteristics
of Guided Media
Frequency Typical Typical Repeater
Range Attenuation Delay Spacing
Twisted pair 0 to 3.5 kHz 0.2 dB/km @ 50 µs/km 2 km
(with loading) 1 kHz