Digital Logic Design

BOOLEAN ALGEBRA: POS,

MAXTERM

Instructor: Muhammad Zeshan Qurashi

Department of Computing
Shifa Tameer-e-Millat University (STMU).
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Boolean Algebra
• Boolean Algebra
• Basic mathematics needed for the study of the
logic design of digital systems is Boolean
algebra
• Developed by George Boole in 1847
• Boolean Variables
• Boolean variables in Logic Design can take only
two different values
• These values are represented by ‘0’ and ‘1’

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Boolean Algebra : Binary Operators
• Basic Operations in Boolean Algebra are AND,
OR and Complement (NOT)

• Binary Operators
• AND
• z=x•y=xy z=1 if x=1 AND y=1
• OR
• z=x+y z=1 if x=1 OR y=1
• NOT
• z = x = x’ z=1 if x=0

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Boolean Expressions
• Boolean expressions are formed by application
of the basic operations to one or more variables

• Each appearance of a variable or its complement

in an expression will be referred to as a literal
• F = x + x’ y ( 3 Literals)
• F = ab’c + a’ b+a’bc’ + b’c’ ( 10 Literals)
• Number of variables in above expressions are 2
and 3, respectively
• Two expressions are equal if they have the same
output value for every possible combination of
the input variables
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Logic Design : Representations
• Boolean Expression
x y z F
F = x + y’ z 0 0 0 0
• Truth Table
0 0 1 1
All possible combinations of
0 1 0 0
input variables
0 1 1 0
1 0 0 1
• Logic Circuit
1 0 1 1
x F 1 1 0 1
y
1 1 1 1
z
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Boolean Function : Truth Table
• Complete the Truth Table for the given Boolean
function

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Booleans Postulates
• Postulates of Boolean Algebra are as under :
• Identity Element
X•1=X X+0=X

• Complement
X • X’ = 0 X + X’ = 1

• Commutative Law
XY = YX X+Y=Y+X

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Booleans Postulates
• Associative Law

• Distributive Law

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Booleans Postulates
• Distributive Law

• Truth Table for Distributive Law

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Boolean Algebra : Theorems
• Below are the Boolean Theorems
• Duality Principal
• The dual of a Boolean algebraic expression is
obtained by interchanging the AND and the OR
operators and replacing the 1’s by 0’s and the 0’s
by 1’s
–X+0=X , Dual X.1 = X
– X + X’ = , Dual X.X’ = 0
1
–x•(y+z)=(x•y)+(x•z)
– Dual of expression
–x+(y•z)=(x+y)•(x+
z) 10
Duality Principal : Practice Questions
• Find the Dual of following Boolean Expressions

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Boolean Algebra : Theorems
• Below are the Boolean Theorems
•
• Theorem 1 : Idempotent
– x•x=x x+x=x
• Theorem 2
– x•0=0 x+1=1
• Theorem 3: Involution
– ( x’ )’ = x (x)=x
• Theorem 4: Absorption
– x•(x+y)=x x+(x•y)
=x
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Boolean Algebra : Theorems
• Below are the Boolean Theorems
• Theorem 5: Associative & Distributive
• Associative
–(x•y)•z=x•(y•z)
–(x+y)+z=x+(y+z)
• Distributive
–x•(y+z)=(x•y)+(x•z)
–x+(y•z)=(x+y)•(x+z)

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Theorem 6 : DeMorgan’s Law
• DeMorgan’s laws can be stated as
– The complement of the sum is the product of
the complements
– The complement of the product is the sum of
the complements.

– For multiple variables

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Theorem 6 : DeMorgan’s Law
• DeMorgan’s law

• Truth Table of DeMorgan’s Law

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Logic Simplification using Boolean
Algebra
• Boolean expressions can be simplified using the
rules of Boolean algebra (Boolean Postulates &
Theorems)
• Simplified Boolean expressions result in less
number of gates in the circuit that also reduces
circuit area and cost
• Example

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Logic Simplification using Boolean
Algebra
• Boolean Expression Simplification

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Boolean Function Simplification :
Practice Questions
• Simplify the following Boolean functions to
minimum number of literals
– xy + x’z + yz
– (x + y)(x’ + z)(y + z)
– xyz + x ‘y + xyz’
– a’bc + abc’ + abc + a’bc’
• Simplify the following Boolean
Expressions

• Draw Logic Circuit of simplified Functions

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 Algebraic Manipulation
To minimize Boolean expressions
◦literal: a primed or unprimed variable( complemented or
uncomplemented) (an input to a gate)
◦term: an implementation with a gate
◦The minimization of the number of literals and the number of terms => a
circuit with less equipment
◦It is a hard problem (no specific rules to follow)

◦ F1=x’yz+xy’z+xz’ (Boolean expression)

term
function literals

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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND 2-
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Algebraic Manipulation

Examples:
1. x(x'+y) = xx' + xy = 0+ xy = xy postulate 4(b) 
2. x+x'y = (x+x')(x+y) = 1 (x+y) = x+y x+yz=(x+y)(x+z)
3. (x+y)(x+y') = x+xy+xy'+yy' = x(1+y+y') = x
4. x'y'z + x'yz + xy' = x'z(y'+y) + xy'= x'z + xy‘
5. xy + x'z + yz = xy + x'z + yz(x+x')
= xy + x'z + yzx + yzx'
= xy(1+z) + x'z(1+y)
= xy +x'z by duality from the
6. (x+y)(x'+z)(y+z) = (x+y)(x'+z) previous result

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2
Complement of a Function
The complement of a function F is F’ and is obtained from
◦ an interchange of 0's for 1's and 1's for 0's in the value of F
◦ by DeMorgan's theorem

◦ (A+B+C)' = (A+X)' let B+C = X

= A'X' by DeMorgan's
= A'(B+C)'
by DeMorgan's
= A'(B'C')
associative
= A'B'C'
Generalization form of DeMorgan's theorem
◦ (A+B+C+ ... +F)' = A'B'C' ... F'
◦ (ABC ... F)' = A'+ B'+C'+ ... +F‘
◦ The complement of a function is obtained by
interchanging AND and OR
operators and complementing each literal.

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Complement of a Function (cont.)

Example 2.2: Find the complement of the functions

F1=x’yz’+x’y’z and F2=x(y’z’+yz)
◦ F1’=(x'yz' + x'y'z)' = (x'yz')' (x‘y'z)' = (x+y'+z) (x+y+z')
◦ F2’=[x(y'z'+yz)]' = x' + ( y'z'+yz)' = x' + (y'z')' (yz)'= x' + (y+z)
(y'+z')

A simpler procedure
◦ take the dual of the function and complement each literal.
◦ Example 2.3:
◦ F1=x'yz' + x'y'z
=> (x'+y+z') (x'+y'+z) (the dual) (operators are changed AND into
OR)
=> (x+y'+z)(x+y+z')=F1’ (complement each literal)

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2-
Complement of a Function

• Generalized form of DeMorgan’s theorem states

that the complement of a function is obtained by
interchanging AND and OR operators and
complementing each literal

• DeMorgan’s theorem can be extended to three or

more variables

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Complement of a Function :
Practice Questions
• Find Complement of the following Functions by
repeatedly applying DeMorgan’s Theorem

• For F1, Complement Function is

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Standard Forms : Two-Level Logic
Implementations
• Sum of Products (SOP) B’
C
F  BC  AB  AC A
B’ F
A

• Product of Sums (POS) C

A

F  ( A  C)(A  B)(B  C
C) A F
B’
B’
C
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Canonical Forms : Minterms & Maxterms

• Minterm
• Minterm of n variables is a product of n literals in
which each variable appears exactly once in
either true or complement form

• Maxterm
• Maxterm of n variables is a sum of n literals in
which each variable appears exactly once in
either true or complemented form

• Boolean functions expressed as a sum of

minterms or product of maxterms are said to be
in Canonical Form
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Canonical Forms : Minterm
• Minterm
A B Minterm
• For n variables, there will C
be total of 2n minterms
0 0 0 0 m0 A B C
• For 3 Variables, there will
be total of 8 minterms 1 0 0 1 m1 ABC
i.e. m0 to m7
2 0 1 0 m2 ABC
3 0 1 1 m3 ABC
4 1 0 0 m4 ABC
5 1 0 1 m5 ABC
6 1 1 0 m6 ABC
7 1 1 1 m7 ABC
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Boolean Functions : Minterms
• Boolean Function
• Boolean function can be
expressed as sum of
minterms for which value
of function is 1 in truth
table

• f(x,y,z) = Σ (1, 4, 7)

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Minterms : Example
• Express the following function in Sum of
Minterms form

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Minterms : Practice Questions
• Convert the following functions into Sum of
Minterms

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Canonical Forms : Maxterm
• Maxterm
A B Maxterms
• For n variables,
C
will be total
there 2n
of maxterms 0 0 0 M0 A  B 
• For 3 Variables, 0 C
will be total of 8
there 1 0 0 M1 AB
maxterms M0 to 1 C
i.e. M7
2 0 1 M2 AB
0 C
3 0 1 M3 AB
1 C
4 1 0 M4 AB
0 C 32
Boolean Functions : Maxterms
• Boolean Function
• Boolean functioncan be
expressed as product
of
maxterms
• Take complement of sum of
minterms for which value of
function is 0

• f(x,y,z) = Π (0, 2, 3, 5, 6)
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Maxterms : Example
• Express the following function in Product of
Maxterms form

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Maxterms : Practice Questions
• Express the following functions as a product of
maxterms

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Minterms & Maxterms :
Practice Questions
• Obtain the truth table of the following functions,
and express each function in sum‐of‐minterms
and product‐of‐maxterms form

• Express the following function as a sum of

minterms and as a product of maxterms

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Conversion between Minterms & Maxterms

• To convert from one canonical form to another

– interchange the symbols Σ and Π and list
those numbers missing from the original form in
n variables

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Minterms & Maxterms :
Practice Questions
• Convert the following truth table into Boolean
expressions for f1 and f2

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Conversion between Canonical Forms
: Practice Questions
• Convert each of the following to the other
canonical form. Also write Truth Tables of both
the functions

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Logic Gates
in
Digital
Logic
Design

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Logic Gates (AND, OR, NOT, XOR)
• Basic Logic Gates

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Logic Gates (NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR)
• Basic Logic Gates

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Basic Logic Gates
• Graphical Symbols of Basic Logic Gates

4343
Logic Gates : AND , NAND
• AND x y AND
x x•y 0 0 0
0 1 0
y 1 0 0
1 1 1
• NAND (Not AND) x y NAND

x 0 0 1
x•y 0 1 1
y 1 0 1
1 1 0

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Logic Gates : OR, NOR
• OR x y OR
x 0 0 0
x+y
0 1 1
y 1 0 1
1 1 1

x y NOR
• NOR
0 0 1
x x+y 0 1 0
1 0 0
y
1 1 0

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Logic Gates : NOT, Buffer
• NOT (Inverter)
x NOT

0 1
x x
1 0

• Buffer x Buffer

0 0
x x
1 1

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Logic Gates : XOR, XNOR
• XOR (Exclusive-OR) x y XOR

x 0 0 0
x y=xy+x 0 1 1
y y 1 0 1
1 1 0
• XNOR (Exclusive-NOR)
(Equivalence) x y XNOR

0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
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Logic Gates (AND, OR, NOT, XOR)
• Basic Logic Gates

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Logic Gates (NAND, NOR, XOR, XNOR)
• Basic Logic Gates

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Logic Gates : Boolean Expressions
• Draw logic diagrams to implement the following
Boolean expressions

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