Unit 1:

Introduction to
Computers
What is Computer?
🠶 A computer is a machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions.
🠶 A computer is a device capable of performing computations and making logical decisions
at speed millions and even billion of times faster then human beings can.
🠶 Computer is an electronic machine which is use for data processing. The output which
comes after processing data through computer is known as Information.
🠶 The computer as a system which is a combination of hardware and software joined
together so, it has the ability to:
a) accept data
b) input, store and execute instructions.
c) perform mathematical and logical operation on data.
d) output results.
1. Calculating Machines
ABACUS was the first mechanical calculating
device for counting of large numbers. The word
ABACUS means calculating board. It consists
of bars in horizontal positions on which sets of
beads are inserted. The horizontal bars have 10
beads each, representing units, tens, hundreds,
etc.
2. Napier’s Bones

Napier’s Bones was a mechanical device built

for the purpose of multiplication in 1617 ad. by
an English mathematician John Napier.
3. Slide Rule

Slide Rule was developed by an English

mathematician Edmund Gunter in the 16th
century. Using the slide rule, one could perform
operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division. It was used
extensively till late 1970s.
4. Pascal’s Adding and
Subtraction Machine
Pascal’s Adding and Subtraction Machine
was developed by Blaise Pascal. It could add
and subtract. The machine consisted of wheels,
gears and cylinders.
5. Leibniz’s Multiplication
and Dividing Machine
Leibniz’s Multiplication and Dividing
Machine was a mechanical device that could
both multiply and divide. The German
philosopher and mathematician Gottfried
Leibniz built it around 1673.
6. Punch Card System

Punch Card System was developed by

Jacquard to control the power loom in 1801.
He invented the punched card reader that could
recognize the presence of hole in the punched
card as binary one and the absence of the hole
as binary zero. The O’s and 1’s are the basis of
the modern digital computer.
7. Babbage’s Analytical
Engine
Babbage’s Analytical Engine, An English
man Charles Babbage built a mechanical
machine to do complex mathematical
calculations, in the year 1823. The machine
was called as difference engine. Later, Charles
Babbage and Lady Ada Lovelace developed a
general-purpose calculating machine, the
analytical engine. Charles Babbage is also
called the father of computer.
8. Hollerith’s Punched Card
Tabulating Machine
Hollerith’s Punched Card Tabulating
Machine was invented by Herman Hollerith.
The machine could read the information from a
punched card and process it electronically.
Generation of Computer
🠶 Zero generation (1642 to 1945)
🠶 First Generation (1945 to 1955)
🠶 Second generation (1955 to 1965)
🠶 Third generation (1966 to 1970)
🠶 Fourth generation (1971 to 1980)
🠶 Fifth generation (1980 to present)
Zero generation Computers
(1642 to 1945)

🠶 Mechanical calculators was developed as

computing device.
First Generation Computers
(1945 to 1955)
🠶 In 1946 first electronic computer ENAIC (Electronic
Numerical Integrator and Calculator ) was developed by Mr.
J. Presper Eckert and Mr. John Manuchly at University of
Pennsylvania.
🠶 It uses 18,000 vacuum tubes and its cost was $500,000.
🠶 Its weight was 30 tons and occupied 30 by 50 foot space.
🠶 It produced large amount of heat.
🠶 Its speed was very slow.
🠶 The computation time was in milliseconds.
🠶 The first generation computers are ENIAC(Electronic
Numerical Integrator And Calculator), UNIVAC(Universal
Automatic computer), EDVAC(Electronic Discrete variable
Automatic Computer) etc.
Second Generation Computers
(1955 to 1965)
🠶 In this second generation vacuum tubes was replaced
by transistors.
🠶 Speed / performance of this generation computers was
improved in comparison to first generation computers.
🠶 Size, price , and heat produced reduced by using
transistors.
🠶 The computation time was in microseconds
🠶 These computer uses high level programming
languages such as FORTRAN, COBOL, Algol and
Snobol, etc.
🠶 IBM 700,1401, ATLAS, etc. are examples of second
generations computers.
Third generation Computers
(1966 to 1970)
🠶 In this third generation transistors was replaced by IC’s
(Integrated Circuits i.e. fabrication of thousands
electronic components on single silicon chip ).
🠶 Using this drastic reduction in the size of computers.
🠶 Speed / performance was high in comparison to third
generation.
🠶 The computation time was in nanoseconds
🠶 Heat produced by computers was reduced.
🠶 The third generations computers were IBM 360-
370ICL-1900, NCR 395, CRAY-1 etc. These computers
were used in educations, Research, small businesses as
well as scientific and engineering purposes.
Fourth generation Computers
(1971 to 1980)
🠶 In this generation IC’s are replaced by LSI (Large Scale
Integrated Circuits : more number of electronic
components on silicon chip)
🠶 These are low cast, small size and high performance in
comparisons to third generation computers
🠶 The computation time is in picoseconds
🠶 These computer uses high level programming languages
such as C,C++,JAVA PROLOG etc. as windows as
developed during this time.
🠶 The Intel 4004 chip was the first microprocessor. This
generation computer has high processing speed, large
storage capacity and much more powerful operating
system. E.g.: IBM, PC, PENTIUM I, PENTIUM II and
PENTIUM III etc.
Fifth generation Computers
(1981 to Present)

🠶 In this generation LSI are replaced by VLSI (Very

Large Scale Integrated Circuits)
🠶 Size and cost of these computers is very less and
performance is very high
🠶 These computers will be under Artificial Intelligence
(AI), They will be able to take commands in a audio
visual way and carry out instructions. Many of the
operations which requires low human intelligence will
be performed by these computers
🠶 The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop
devices that respond to natural language input and are
capable of learning and self-organization.
Characteristics of computer

🠶 All computers have certain common characteristics irrespective of their type and size.
Computers not only does day to day task but, they are also capable of doing complex
activities and operations. Computers are what they are because of following
characteristics.
🠶 Speed
🠶 Storage
🠶 Accuracy
🠶 Diligence
🠶 Versatility
🠶 Word length
1. Speed
🠶 Computers can calculate at very high speeds. As the power of computer increases, the
speed also increases.
🠶 The smallest unit of time in the human experience is realistically the second. We do not
think of doing something in less than a second. But a computer performs operations at an
incredible speed. It can process information within Pico second.
🠶 The computers can process data at an extremely fast rate. i.e. in tune of million of
instructions per seconds(MIPS). For example A microcomputer can execute a million of
instruction per second. We will use the following terms to describe the processing
capability of computer
🠶 Millisecond : One thousand of second=1/1000
🠶 Microsecond : One million of second=1/1000,000
🠶 Nanosecond : One billionth of a second=1/100,000,000
🠶 Picoseconds : One trillionth of a second=1/1000,000,000,000
2. Storage
🠶 A computer can store large amount of data. i.e. the storage capacity of computer is high.
🠶 The data can be stored and retrieved according to the need of the user. In fact it takes very
less time to retrieve desired information from a huge amount of data stored inside a
computer memory.
🠶 So the capability of storing and retrieving huge amount of data in fast and efficient manner
is one of the important characteristics of computer.
🠶 A limited amount of data can be stored, temporarily, in the primary memory. Secondary
storage devices like external hard drive, USB drive, cloud storage, etc. can store a large
amount of data permanently.
3. Accuracy
🠶 In addition to being fast, computers are very accurate which means that the accuracy of
computer is very high.
🠶 The accuracy of a computer is consistently high and the degree of a accuracy of a
computer depends upon its design. Every calculation is performed with the same accuracy
🠶 For example, the computer can accurately give the result of division of any two numbers
up to 10 decimal places
4. Diligence
🠶 When used for a longer period of time, the computer does not get tired or fatigued. It can
perform long and complex calculations with the same speed and accuracy from the start till
the end.
🠶 Diligence means being constant and earnest in effort and application.
5. Versatility
🠶 Computer is versatile in nature. They can perform activities ranging from simple
calculations to complex operations with same ease.
🠶 At one moment you can use the computer to prepare a letter document and in the next
moment you may play music or print a document.
🠶 For each task to be performed there is one program associated with it.
6. Word length
🠶 A digital computer operate on binary digits- 0 and 1’s. It can understand information in
terms of 0s and 1s. A binary digit is called a bit.
🠶 A group of 8 bits is called a byte. Thus the number of bits that a computer can process at a
time in parallel is called its word length . Commonly used word length are 8,16,32 or 64
bits.
🠶 Word length is the measure of the computing power of a computer . The longer word
length ,the more powerful the computer is. When we talk about 32-bit computer, it means
that its word length is 32 bits.
Limitation of computer
🠶 No Intelligent: Computer are the machine which can not think. They do not show any
intelligence of their own. It can not take its own decision. So their I.Q(Intelligence
Quotient) is zero.
🠶 No Intuition: Computer can not draw conclusion with out going through itself, i.e. they do
not have intuition. Computer can only do a job, which can be expressed in a finite number
of steps. The computer is useless without correct program.
🠶 No Feeling: Computer has no emotions because they are machine.
The Computer System
Hardware:
🠶 The physical components which can be seen, touched, feel are called hardware which are resources of a
computer .The hardware consist of following components.
Input Device:
🠶 These devices are used to input data and instruction into computer e.g.: keyboard, mouse etc.
Output Devices:
🠶 Those devices are used to display result to the user. Monitor, printer etc.
Memory Unit:
🠶 Memory unit stores the data, instructions, intermediate results and output, temporarily, during the processing of
data. This memory is also called the main memory or primary memory of the computer. The input data that is to be
processed is brought into the main memory before processing.
🠶 Another kind of storage unit is also referred to as the secondary memory of the computer. The data, the programs
and the output are stored permanently in the storage unit of the computer. Hard disk, CD, USB drive are some
examples of secondary memory.
CPU(central processing unit):
🠶 CPU controls, coordinates and supervises the operations of the computer. It is responsible for processing of the input
data.
🠶 CPU consists of Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU).
🠶 ALU performs all the arithmetic and logic operations on the input data.
🠶 CU controls the overall operations of the computer i.e. it checks the sequence of execution of instructions, and,
controls and coordinates the overall functioning of the units of computer
Software
Software is a set of instructions that tells the computer about the tasks to be performed and how these tasks are to be
performed.
Instruction:
🠶 Instructions are the commands which give the way or path to perform different operations inside computer with
the help of different devices.
Program:
🠶 Collections of set of instructions are called programs. Which are used to run and perform different operations
inside computer. Each collection of program parts called software.
Users
Users are people who write computer programs or interact with the computer. They are also known as skinware, liveware,
humanware or peopleware. Programmers, data entry operators, system analyst and computer hardware engineers fall into
this category.
Data:
🠶 The raw facts, measurements, or materials are called data which are collected from different areas to get information.
These are also observations, old records. Data is plural form of Datum. For example:
A
40
50 B
30 Fig 1:
C 80
In above fig 1. A, 50, B, 40……., are data. When you simply
D look at figure, it does not give any meaning, so data are raw
facts.
Information:
🠶 The proceeded data which are in meaningful form are called information. Data are regarded the most fundamental
forms of information. Data are arranged and processed to get information.

Section No of Students
A 50 Fig 2:
B 40
When the data of fig 1C are arranged as in fig
280it gives information since it shows that in section A, there are 50 students
D 30
and in section B ,there are 40 students and so on.
 Functions of computer
There are various function of computer. The main functions are of five types. They are as follows:
1) Input
The process which enter data inside computer system with the help of input devices is called inputting. Or In others
words the process of entering data and instruction is called inputting.
2) Processing:
The process which performs different mathematical operations and logical operations (<,≤, ≥, ≠, >) is called
processing. The computer performs all processing by "calculating," and "comparing” the data stored in its memory
(RAM). It is done in two ways. They are as follows:
a)Mathematical operation:
The computer can perform any mathematical operation on data by adding, subtracting, multiplying and
dividing(+,-,*,/) one set with another.
b)Logical operation:
The computer can analyze and evaluate data by matching it with sets of known data that are included in the program
or called in from storage i.e it compares two or more data either it is greater than, smaller than, greater or equal to,
smaller or equal to and equals to((<, ≤, ≥, ≠, >).
3) Output:
The process of giving information or results after processing and storing is called output. It is shown by output devices
such as monitor i.e. The process which display result to the user is called output.
4) Storing
The process which helps to store data and information is called storing. The computer is able to store (save) data and
programs permanently and retrieve it when required. A system's size is based on how much disk storage it has. The
more disks, the more data are immediately available

5) Controlling
The CPU of a computer is responsible for controlling devices attached with computer .i.e. Controlling is the function
of controlling all the input and output devices, application programs and memory units.
 CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTER
🠶 Computers are available in many sizes
and types and also can fit in the palm in
our hand to those computers that
occupied the entire room.
🠶 Computer are used in different sectors
and may be differ according to speed,
storage, capacity, size and nature. It may
be special purpose and general purpose.
🠶 Special Purpose computer can perform
only one type of specific task like
Seismograph, Traffic Light Controlling
Computer etc
🠶 General Purpose computer are versatile
and diligent which performs in most of
the sectors.
1. Classification of computer on the basis of working
principle
Analogue Computer:
🠶 Analogue computer is the special purpose computer. It represents the data and physical quantities such as
current , pressure, temperature, voltage etc. They were especially useful in the simulation and evaluation of
dynamic situations such as flight of a space capsule or the changing weather patterns over a certain area. The
accuracy of analogue computers are low.
🠶 Examples: Speedometer, Odometer, Seismograph etc.

Digital Computer
🠶 Digital computer is the general purpose computer, it uses discrete data like letters, numbers , symbols etc. and
process data in binary digits i.e. 0s and 1s. It can be also powerful computers like super, mainframe, mini and
micro computers. . It performs task to control industrial process and regulate the operations of machines,
analyse and organize vast amount of business data and simulate the behaviour of dynamic systems. They are
faster and accurate as compared to analogue computer.
🠶 Example: Digital Clock, personal computer (PC), etc.
Hybrid Computers
🠶 The combination of computers which is capable of processing in both analogue and digital signals. It accepts
input in the form of analogue signals , process data digitally and gives output either digitally or analogue form.
They are used in industrial application, airplanes, ships hospital etc. The widest application of hybrid computer
take place in situation which require real time solutions.
🠶 Example: ECG (Electronic Cardio Graph).
🠶 Difference between Analogue and Digital Computer
2. Classification of Computer based on Size:
Super Computer
🠶 A Super Computer is the fastest, powerful , expensive computer. It is specially used for weather forecasting, biomedical
research , remote sensing, aircraft design etc. The primary use for supercomputers is in scientific computing which
requires high powered computers to perform complex calculation. Scientific organization, rendering complex formulas
etc. They can be handled and maintained by computer engineers only. Inside super computers, there are several smaller
computers , each of which can work simultaneously in different field (so they are big). Muni Bahadur Shakya of Nepal
had constructed a supercomputer in 2063 BS by joining 16 microcomputers.
🠶 Use: Weather forecasting, Aircraft and Space engineering, Scientific research etc.
🠶 Examples: CRAY 3, CYBER 205, NEC-205 etc.

Micro Computer
🠶 Micro Computer is a small sized personal computer that designed for an individual having a microprocessor inside it.
These computers are called micro because of the use of microprocessor as processing unit. There are different
microcomputers like, Laptop, Tablet, PC, Smart Phone, Ultrabook, etc.
🠶 Use: Entertainment, Desktop Business, Education sector etc.
🠶 Example: IBM PC, Apple, Dell etc.
Mainframe Computer
🠶 Mainframes are large powerful and expensive computers used mainly by large companies for bulk data processing,
commercial data processing and other large scale operations such as bank transactions. It may have hundred or even
thousand of terminals. Its word length is more than 64 bits. IBM built first mainframe computer in 1964. The main
difference between supercomputer and mainframe computer is that super computer channels all its power into executing
a few programs as fast as possible whereas as mainframe uses its power to execute many program concurrently. It was
developed by J. Presper Eckert and John Mauchly in 1951.
🠶 Use: Industries, Bank, Airplanes, Air Traffic Control, Census etc.
🠶 Example: IBM ES000, VAX 8000, IBM 370 etc

Mini Computer
🠶 Mini Computer are also multi user computer like mainframe computer. They are smaller than mainframe computer. A
minicomputer may have hundred or less number of terminals. It is typically used for middle sized business who needed
more power and memory that could be obtained with micro computer. They can process more data and support more
Input and Output devices. It is also called Mid Ranged Computer. It was developed by Kenneth H. Olsen in 1965.
🠶 Use: University, Scientific Research, Industries etc.
🠶 Example: PDP 11, IBM 8000 series VAX 750 etc
3. Classification of Computer based on Brand:
IBM Computer
🠶 IBM stands for International Business Machine. It is made by IBM company by established by Dr. Herman Hollerith in
1923 AD. These computers are more expensive , more reliable, durable. It is also called IBM branded computer. It is
famous for data processing and store. In the beginning IBM manufactured main frame computers followed by mini and
micro computers.

IBM Compatible
🠶 Compatible means able to exist together. The components are developed by different companies and finally they are
assembled and a computer is made. It is also called IBM assembled PC. The basic architecture is similar to IBM PC
excepting few technologies. All the software and programs, which run in IBM computers can equally run in IBM
compatibles. Most of the microcomputers used in Nepal are IBM compatibles. The computer are cheap.

Apple Macintosh
🠶 This company was established in USA in 1970s. It is one of the largest computer manufactures which is in USA It has
many PCs with good qualities and user friendly.The Apple computers have their own software and hardware (excluding
hardware). This computers are mostly used by graphic designer’s and for software development.
4. Classification of the basis of Model:
XT Computer
🠶 XT stands for eXtra Technology and these computer uses CUI (Character User Interface). They don’t have
large storage capacity and fast processing. Examples: Intel 8085 / 8086 / 8088.

AT Computer
🠶 AT stands for Advanced Technology and these computers are based on GUI (Graphics User Interface).
Their I/ O device are flexible and faster.. It has processor and large storage capacity, complex calculation.
Example: Pentium 80286 / 386 / 488.

PS / 2 Computer
🠶 PS stands for Personal System. It is refinement of AT computer. It was developed after 1990. It runs on
battery. They have faster I /O devices and uses GUI based software.
 Application of Computers
Education Computers
🠶 These computers are extensively used, as a tool and as an aid, for imparting education. Educators use computers to
prepare notes and presentations of their lectures.
🠶 Computers are used to develop computer-based training packages, to provide distance education using the e-learning
software, and to conduct online examinations.
🠶 Researchers use computers to get easy access to conference and journal details and to get global access to the research
material.
Entertainment Computers
🠶 These computers have had a major impact on the entertainment industry. The user can download and view movies, play
games, chat, book tickets for cinema halls, use multimedia for making movies, incorporate visual and sound effects
using computers, etc. The users can also listen to music, download and share music, create music using computers, etc.
Advertising Computer
🠶 These computers are powerful advertising media. Advertisement can be displayed on different websites, electronic-mails
can be sent and reviews of a product by different customers can be posted. Computers are also used to create an
advertisement using the visual and the sound effects. For the advertisers, computer is a medium via which the
advertisements can be viewed globally. Web advertising has become a significant factor in the marketing plans of almost
all companies. In fact, the business model of Google is mainly dependent on web advertising for generating revenues.
Sports
🠶 A computer can be used to watch a game, view the scores, improve the game, play games (like chess, etc.) and create
games. They are also used for the purposes of training players.

Medicine
🠶 Medical researchers and practitioners use computers to access information about the advances in medical research or to
take opinion of doctors globally. The medical history of patients is stored in the computers.
🠶 Computers are also an integral part of various kinds of sophisticated medical equipment's like ultrasound machine, CAT
scan machine, MRI scan machine, etc. Computers also provide assistance to the medical surgeons during critical surgery
operations like laparoscopic operations, etc.

Science and Engineering

🠶 Scientists and engineers use computers for performing complex scientific calculations, for designing and making
drawings (CAD/CAM applications) and also for simulating and testing the designs.
🠶 Computers are used for storing the complex data, performing complex calculations and for visualizing 3–dimensional
objects. Complex scientific applications like the launch of the rockets, space exploration, etc., are not possible without
the computers.
Government
🠶 The government uses computers to manage its own operations and also for e-governance. The websites of the different
government departments provide information to the users.
🠶 Computers are used for the filing of income tax return, paying taxes, online submission of water and electricity bills, for
the access of land record details, etc.
🠶 The police department uses computers to search for criminals using fingerprint matching, etc.

Home
🠶 Computers have now become an integral part of home equipment. At home, people use computers to play games, to
maintain the home accounts, for communicating with friends and relatives via Internet, for paying bills, for education
and learning, etc.
🠶 Microprocessors are embedded in house hold utilities like, washing machines, TVs, food processors, home theatres,
security devices, etc.
🠶 Sensors are also being used to control different equipment present in the house (home automation) like, water pumps,
lights, curtains, gate, etc.

In addition to the applications of the computers discussed above, computers have also proliferated into areas like banks,
investments, stock trading, accounting, ticket reservation, military operations, meteorological predictions, social
networking, business organizations, police department, video conferencing, telepresence, book publishing, web
newspapers, and information sharing.
Books
🠶 Text Books:
1. Computer Fundamentals, Anita Goel, Pearson Education India
🠶 Reference Books:
1. Introduction to Computers, Peter Norton, 7th Edition, McGraw Hill Education
2. Computer Fundamental, Pradeep K. Sinha and Priti Sinha
3. Data Mining Concepts and Techniques, Third Edition, Jiawei Han, Micheline Kamber and
Jian Pei
4. Cloud Computing Bible, Barrie Sosinsky, Wiley
THE END