Prof.

LJ Cabaraban, MM-HRM
In the past decade the tourism sector has
progressed exponentially. This has resulted in
the forms of tourism becoming more diverse.
This chapter elucidates the various branches
of tourism such as business tourism,
international tourism, ecotourism, adventure
travel, space tourism, etc. that form an integral
part of the broader subject matter.
Varied Types of Tourism
 Business Tourism
 International Tourism
 Rural Tourism
 Agritourism
 Ecotourism
 Farm Stay
 Geotourism
 Sustainable Tourism
 International Volunteering
 Adventure Travel
 Bicycle Touring
 Jungle Tourism
 Disaster Tourism
 Dark Tourism
 Extreme Tourism
 Space Tourism
 Sports Tourism
Business Tourism
Business tourism or business travel is a more limited and focused subset of regular
tourism. During business tourism (traveling), individuals are still working and being
paid, but are doing so away from both their workplace and home.

Some definitions of tourism tend to exclude business travel. However, the World
Tourism
Organization (WTO) defines tourists as people “traveling to and staying in places
outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure,
business and other purposes”.

Primary business tourism activities include meetings, and attending conferences and
exhibitions. Despite the term business in business tourism, when individuals from
government
or non-profit organizations engage in similar activities, this is still categorized
as business tourism (travel).
Significance
Historically, business tourism, is in the form of traveling to, spending
money and staying abroad, away for some time, has a history as long as
that of international trade. In late 20th century, business tourism is seen
as a major industry.

According to the 1998 data from the British Tourist Authority and
National Tourist
Boards, business tourism accounted for about 14% of all trips to or within
UK, and 15% of the tourist market within UK. A 2005 estimate suggested
that those numbers for UK may be closer to 30%. Sharma (2004) cited a
WTO estimated that business tourism accounts for 30% of international
tourism, through its importance varies significantly between different
countries.
Characteristics

Compared to regular tourism, business ones involves a smaller

section of the population , with different motivations, and
additional freedom-of-choice limiting constrains
imposed through the business aspects. Destinations of business
tourism are much more likely to be areas significantly developed for
business purposes (cities, industrial regions, etc.).

Business tourism can be divided into primary and secondary

activities. Primary one are business (work) related, and included
activities such as consultations, inspections, and attending
meetings. Secondary ones are related to tourism (leisure) and
include activities such as dining out, recreation, shopping,
sightseeing, meeting others for leisure activities, and so on. While
the primary ones are seen as more important, the secondary ones
are nonetheless often described as “substantial”.
Business tourism can involve individual and small group
travel, and destinations can include small to larger
meetings, including conventions and conferences, trade
fairs, and exhibitions. In the United States, about half of
business tourism involves attending
a large meeting of such kind.

Most tourist facilities such as airports, restaurants and

hotels are shared between leisure and business tourists,
through a seasonal difference is often apparent (for
example, business tourism may use those facilities during
times less attractive for leisure tourists, such as when the
weather conditions are less attractive).
Business tourism can be divided into:

• traditional business traveling, or meetings - intended for face-to-face

meetings with business partners in different locations

• incentive trips - a job perk, aimed at motivating employees (for

example, approximately a third of UK companies use this strategy to
motivate workers)

• conference and exhibition traveling - intended for attending large scale

meetings.

In an estimated number of 14,000 conferences worldwide (for 1994),

primary destinations are Paris, London, Madrid, Geneva, Brussels,
Washington, New York, Sydney and Singapore.

The words meetings, incentive, conferences and exhibition in the context

of business tourism are abbreviated as MICE.
International Tourism
International tourism refers to tourism
that crosses national borders.
Globalization has made tourism a popular
global leisure activity. The World Tourism
Organization defines tourists as people
“traveling to and staying in places outside
their usual environment for not more than
one consecutive year for leisure, business
and other purposes”.

The World Health Organization (WHO)

estimates that up to 500,000 people are in Modern aviation has made it possible to travel
long distances quickly.
flight at any one time.
As a result of the late-2000s recession, international travel
demand suffered a strong slowdown from the second half of
2008 through the end of 2009. This negative trend intensified
during 2009, exacerbated in some countries due to the
outbreak of the H1N1 influenza virus, resulting in a
worldwide decline of 4.2% in 2009 to 880 million
international tourists arrivals, and a 5.7% decline in
international tourism receipts.

In 2010, international tourism reached US$919B, growing

6.5% over 2009, corresponding to an increase in real terms of
4.7%. In 2010, there were over 940 million international
tourist arrivals worldwide.
Rural Tourism
Rural tourism focuses on actively participating in a
rural lifestyle. It can be a variant of ecotourism. Many
rural villages can facilitate tourism because many
villagers are hospitable and eager to welcome (and
sometime even host) visitors. Agriculture is becoming
highly mechanized and therefore, requires less manual
labor. This trend is causing economic pressure on some
villages, which in turn causes young people to move to
urban areas. There is however, a segment of the urban
population that is interested in visiting the rural areas
and understanding the lifestyle.
Benefits
Rural tourism allows the creation of a replacement source of income in the non-
agricultural sector for rural dwellers. The added income from rural tourism can
contribute
to the revival of lost folk art and handicrafts.

Relevance in Developing Nations

Rural tourism is particularly relevant in developing nations where farmland has

become
fragmented due to population growth. The wealth that rural tourism can provide
to poor households creates great prospects for development.

Relevance in Developed Nations

Rural tourism exists in developed nations in the form of providing accommodation in
a scenic location, ideal for rest and relaxation. There are many scenic towns that have
become quaint spots for vacationers.
Rural Tourism is Subdivided Into

• Agricultural tourism
• Tourism stays.
• Experiences and Experiential Tourism.
• Food Routes
• Sports Tourism

Community Ecotourism
• Ethno-tourism
• Rural tourism and aging: Search the participation of older persons in
the generation and implementation of tourism activities in rural areas
characterized by aging population
Community Ecotourism

The International Ecotourism Society (TIES) defines ecotourism as

“responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and
improves the well-being of local people.” TIES is an example of a nonprofit
organization dedicated to assisting companies in developing ecotourism
practices and promoting sustainable community development. Ecotourism
provides an alternative form of travel to mass tourism. Mass tourism is the
idea of visiting a place with minimal responsibility to the local community
and environment. Tourism, the world’s largest industry of more than 10% of
total employment and 11% of global GDP, is also a quickly growing industry as
“total tourist trips are predicted to increase to 1.6 billion by 2020”. In order to
accommodate these rising needs in the tourism industry, there must be a
shift within this industry. One in particular is the need to protect the
environment and respect the local culture.
The ecotourism principles do just that, as they are the
following:

• To minimize impact
• Build environmental and cultural awareness and respect
• Provide positive experiences for both visitors and hosts
• Provide direct financial benefit for conservation
• Provide financial benefits and empowerment for local
people
• Raise sensitivity to host countries’ political,
environmental, and social climate.
According to the World Tourism Organization, ecotourism is growing
three times faster than the tourism industry. This implies the already
changing phenomenon occurring in traveling. Similarly, the World
Conservation Union goes one step further in defining ecotourism to
include enjoying and appreciating nature, have low negative visitor
impact, and providing socio-economic involvement to the local
populations.

As ecotourism is growing, it is also focusing on especially vulnerable

locations to climate change. In a neoliberalism theory, ecotourism is a
win-win for both the host and tourist. This is because there is an effort
for conservation when jobs are available outside of activities such as
logging that harm the environment and the intrinsic value of the
environment is taken into consideration. Additionally, ecotourism
enhances social capital for both the host and tourist when engaging in
social interaction and learning about other cultures.
Benefits of Community Ecotourism
Generally, success is the benefits outweighing the costs. A more
concrete measure of success for ecotourism is ensuring that the
tourism industry operates within the location’s capacity to handle such
activities in the three areas of ecotourism – economy, environment,
and culture. One such form of capacity is economic capacity so that
the tourism industry does not displace sustainable local economic
activity already in place.

Additionally, there is an environmental carrying capacity, the limit at

which the environment is not degraded from tourism. This is especially
important as many ecotourism locations are in locations vulnerable to
climate change, such as along the coast. There is also the idea of
cultural capacity in which the tourism industry remains authentic
and can maintain local practices. With addressing these three capacity
measures, many problems mass tourism places on the host
community are resolved.
Economic

In contrast with traditional tourism, community ecotourism is often a tool for

economic development to promote both capital inflow and employment opportunities
to the community. Thus, it is often targeting more impoverished areas where
implemented. It encourages entrepreneurship for local members to organize the
community in implementing and running successful community-based ecotourism
enterprises. Both financial and social capital is placed in the indigenous community,
driving further enhancements of the community ecotourism program.

Environmental

Along with economic value, community ecotourism enhances the value of the
environment for both the host and the traveler. As a result, community ecotourism
becomes an incentive for conservation. For the community, their environment
becomes a showcase to the tourist and brings a greater desire to maintain it. In mass
tourism, the average tourist holds little responsibility in the impact they have on the
environment and often depletes resources. Community ecotourism gives the tourist a
greater stake in conservation efforts because of their involvement in the local culture.
Community ecotourism becomes a potential solution to bring social justice to those
suffering from side effects of mass tourism in locations most vulnerable to climate
change.
Sociocultural
The sociocultural aspect of ecotourism is that the local tourist becomes more
engaged in the community and their culture. This can be from learning a
religious tradition or supporting a local handicraft. Tourism can at times force
more injustices on the host community. It inculcates a sense of inequality in the
relationships if the tourist feels they have superior knowledge. Community-
based ecotourism places more responsibility on the tourist to learn from the
other culture.

Criticisms
While under the neoliberalism theory, ecotourism is an overall winning
situation, there are many issues associated with ecotourism when poorly
implemented. Community ecotourism is a solution to many of the flaws
detailed.
Inherently Flawed
Compared to responsible tourism and voluntourism, there is an added
importance on respect for the environment and being environmentally
sustainable while traveling. By definition, travel inherently harms the
environment by getting to the location, using more resources than the
location is used to, and producing more waste than normal. It adds an
overall stress to areas most vulnerable to global warming, such as coastlines.
One tourism spot that has struggled to implement community ecotourism is
Tanzania. Tanzania practices a kind of ecotourism that focuses exclusively on
the environment, also called nature tourism.

Tourists come to look exclusively at the nature bringing primarily economic

benefit with arguably negative impact on sociocultural and environmental
factors. As a result, the environmental capacity is exhausted and little
attention is paid to the culture and environment. It has created a situation in
which the environment is now degraded because of tourism and the
economic returns are going to organizations outside of the local economy.
Community-based ecotourism helps address this flaw through working more
small-scale to not expend more resources than available.
Greenwashing
Greenwashing is the idea of using an environmentally friendly label on low
impact conservation efforts. These certifications are often marketing tactics
that can actually promote low impact projects in which the costs can be
greater than the benefit. This idea is common with certain lodging as people
look for green marketing to attempt to have an
ecotourism experience with minimal responsibilities as a tourist.

With community ecotourism, the host community has a greater

involvement in trying to protect their environment to eliminate any harmful
behavior to the environment. However, these low impact campaigns can
cause harm to already vulnerable communities, amplifying the
institutionalized poverty found in many of these locations. Effective
community ecotourism must allow the community to define their
environmental needs.
Economic Downfalls

While seen as a driver in the industry, economic returns may not be as

high as anticipated. Community ecotourism tends to be more small-scale
and does not attract a higher income population. As a result, community
ecotourism brings more backpackers and low-income travelers who wish
to travel cheaply and thus do not support the local economy. It could in
turn result in haggling throughout the journey to receive the lowest
prices. When issues like this arise, it may cost more for the community
to host tourists than the return it brings, especially when taking into
account environmental and social costs. The important part for
community ecotourism is to ensure that tourists are leaving an overall
positive impact on the community and that capital is reinvested into the
community. So, community ecotourism in practice can do more damage
both to the
environment and local economy while having no positive impact on the
people when not properly practiced.
Authenticity

Finally, in terms of the sociocultural aspect of community-based ecotourism, it

is essential for the community to be respected for their own cultures. At times,
the growing demand of tourists can cause tourist sites to adapt to the
demands and expectations of the tourist. Instead of showcasing the culture,
the community may have a show of what the tourist would expect the culture
to be. Community-based ecotourism often eliminates this concern as well
when they are responsible for showcasing their own lifestyle to the tourist.

Future Implications
Community ecotourism becomes an issue of social justice. The communities
that are becoming popular tourist sites are impoverished and are using
ecotourism as a tool for economic development. These communities,
especially when looking at indigenous tourism, are often lacking voices in the
greater political sphere and faced with limited resources. On top of that, they
tend to be especially vulnerable to climate change. This brings greater
attention to the need of conservation efforts. Through success of community
ecotourism, the community can have a larger voice as they show successful
development and become a greater participating member in the global sphere.
 Agritourism

A lodging cottage in a rural area of Lithuania Rural building in Covasna, Romania

 An herb farm in southern Indiana, United States Sign disclaiming legal responsibility at a Kansas
agritourism business

Agritourism or agrotourism, as it is defined most broadly, involves any agriculturally based

operation or activity that brings visitors to a farm or ranch. Agritourism has different definitions in
different parts of the world, and sometimes refers specifically to farm stays, as in Italy. Elsewhere,
agritourism includes a wide variety of activities, including buying produce direct from a farm
stand, navigating a corn maze, slopping hogs, picking fruit, feeding animals, or staying at a bed and
breakfast (B&B) on a farm.

Agritourism is a form of niche tourism that is considered a growth industry in many parts of the
world, including Australia, Canada, the United States, and the Philippines. Other terms associated
with agritourism are “agritainment”, “value added products”, “farm direct marketing” and
“sustainable agriculture”.
Public Awareness
People have become more interested in how their food is produced. They want to
meet farmers and processors and talk with them about what goes into food
production. For many people who visit farms, especially children, the visit marks the
first time they see the source of their food, be it a dairy cow, an ear of corn growing in
a field, or an apple they can pick right off a tree. Farmers and ranchers use this
interest to develop traffic at their farm or ranch, and
interest in the quality of their products, as well as awareness of their products.

Safety
While revenue and education are often primary drivers for farmers to diversify their
operations and invite guests onto their property, safety isn’t always a top priority.
Accidents involving tractors, wagon rides, trips, falls, and traffic occur at agritourism
operations on a regular basis.
Ecotourism
Ecotourism is a form of tourism involving
visiting fragile, pristine, and relatively
undisturbed natural areas, intended as a
low-impact and often small scale alternative
to standard commercial (mass) tourism. Its
purpose may be to educate the traveler, to
provide funds for ecological conservation, to
directly benefit the economic development
and political empowerment of local
communities, or to foster respect for
different cultures and for human rights.
Maria Cristina Falls
Since the 1980s ecotourism has been
considered a critical endeavor by
environmentalists, so that future
generations may experience destinations
relatively untouched by human intervention.
Several university programs use this
description as the working definition of
ecotourism.
Generally, ecotourism deals with living parts of the natural environments.
Ecotourism
focuses on socially responsible travel, personal growth, and environmental
sustainability. Ecotourism typically involves travel to destinations where
flora, fauna, and cultural heritage are the primary attractions. Ecotourism is
intended to offer tourists insight into the impact of human beings on the
environment, and to foster a greater appreciation of our natural habitats.

The term ‘ecotourism’, like ‘sustainable tourism’, is considered by many to be

an oxymoron. Like most forms of tourism, ecotourism generally depends on
air transportation, which contributes to global climate change. Additionally,
“the overall effect of sustainable tourism is negative, where, like ecotourism,
philanthropic aspirations mask hard-nosed immediate self-interest.”
Ecotourist is different from a Tourist in the sense that, he or she is mindful of
his environment, in most cases contributing to the sustainability of such
surroundings.
 Criteria
Eco tourism is a responsible tourism
which conserves the environment and
sustains
the well being of local people Seal watching near Malusi Islands in Estonia.
• Builds environmental awareness
• Provides direct financial benefits
for conservation
• Provides financial benefits and
empowerment for local people
• Respects local culture
• Supports human rights and democratic movements such as:
- conservation of biological diversity and cultural diversity through
ecosystem protection
- promotion of sustainable use of biodiversity, by providing jobs to
local populations
- sharing of all socio-economic benefits with local communities and
indigenous peoples by having their informed consent and
participation in the management of ecotourism enterprises
- tourism to unspoiled natural resources, with minimal impact on
the environment being a primary concern.
- minimization of tourism’s own environmental impact
- affordability and lack of waste in the form of luxury
- local culture, flora and fauna being the main attractions
- local people benefit from this form of tourism economically, often
more than mass tourism

The International Ecotourism Society defines ecotourism as “responsible

travel to natural areas that conserves the environment, sustains the well-
being of the local people, and involves interpretation and education”.
Ecotourism is often misinterpreted as any form of tourism that
involves nature. In reality, the latter activities often consist of placing a
hotel in a splendid landscape, to the detriment of the ecosystem.
According to them ecotourism must above all sensitize people to the
beauty and the fragility of nature.

They condemn some operators as greenwashing their operations:

using the labels of “green” and “eco-friendly”, while behaving in
environmentally irresponsible ways. Although academics disagree
about who can be classified as an ecotourist and there is little
statistical data, some estimate that more than five million ecotourists
—the majority of the ecotourist population—come from the United
States, with many others from Western Europe, Canada and Australia.

Currently, there are various moves to create national and international

ecotourism accreditation programs, although the process is also
controversial. National ecotourism certification programs have been
put in place in countries such as Costa Rica, Australia, Kenya, Estonia,
and Sweden.
Ecotourism is a late 20th-century neologism compounded from
eco- and tourism. According to the Oxford English Dictionary,
ecotour was first recorded in 1973 and ecotourism, “probably after
ecotour”, in 1982.

• ecotour, n. ... A tour of or visit to an area of ecological interest,

usually with an educational element; (in later use also) a similar
tour or visit designed to have as little detrimental effect on the
ecology as possible or undertaken with the specific aim of helping
conservation efforts.

• ecotourism, n. ... Tourism to areas of ecological interest (typically

exotic and often threatened natural environments), esp. to support
conservation efforts and observe wildlife; spec. access to an
endangered environment controlled so as to have the least
possible adverse effect.