Sensors and

Transducers
(Part 2 of 2)

Unit 6 - Mechatronics PEARSON BTEC HND

Electrical & Electronic
Engineering
Randeera Liyanage
Displacement, Position and Proximity Sensors
Pneumatic Sensors

• Use compressed air, displacement or the proximity of an object being transformed

into a change in air pressure.

• Low-pressure air is allowed to escape through a port in the front of the sensor.

• This escaping air, in the absence of any close-by object, escapes and reduces the
pressure in the nearby sensor output port.
Pneumatic Sensors

• If there is a close-by object, the

air cannot escape, and the
pressure increases in the sensor
output port.

• The output pressure from the

sensor depends on the proximity
of objects.

Used for the measurement of displacements in the range of 3 to 12 mm.

Proximity Switches

• Switches which can be activated by the presence of an object in order to give an

output which is either on or off.
Proximity Switches - Microswitch

• A small electrical switch which requires physical contact and a small operating
force to close the contacts.

• Example – When determining the presence of an item on a conveyor belt, this

might be actuated by the weight of the item
Proximity Switches – Reed Switch

• Consists of two magnetic switch contacts sealed in a glass tube.

• When a magnet is brought close to the switch, the magnetic reeds are attracted to
each other and close the switch contacts.
Proximity Switches – Photosensitive Devices

• Used to detect the presence of an opaque object by its breaking a beam of light, or
infrared radiation.

• Falling on the device or by detecting the light reflected back by the object.

• There are two types of photosensitive sensors.

• Thru beam photosensitive sensor.

• Reflective photosensitive sensor.

Proximity Switches – Photosensitive Devices

Thru beam Reflective

 Hall Effect Sensor

• A type of sensor which detects the presence and magnitude of a magnetic field using the
Hall effect.

• When a beam of charged particles passes through a magnetic field, forces act on the
particles and the beam is deflected.

If a constant current source is used with a particular sensor, the Hall voltage is a
measure of the magnetic flux density.
Hall Effect Sensor

• Hall effect sensors are generally supplied as an integrated circuit with the
necessary signal processing circuitry.
• Linear - The output varies in a reasonably linear manner with the magnetic flux density.

• Threshold - The output shows a sharp drop at a particular magnetic flux density.
Hall Effect Sensor

• Hall effect sensor is immune to environmental contaminants and can be used under severe service
conditions.

• Can be used as position, displacement and proximity sensors.

• Can be used to determine the level of fuel in an automobile fuel tank.

• Used in Brushless DC motors.

• Used as an encoder in DC motors to determine the motor position.

HALL EFFECT SENSORS

Demonstration
Velocity and Motion Sensors
Incremental Encoder

An optical encoder or a hall effect sensor can be used to measure the following
using the reading of number of pluses per second.

• Angular velocity

• Angular displacement

• Linear velocity

• Linear displacement
Tachogenerator

A device which is used to measure angular velocity.

Variable Reluctance Tachogenerator

• Consists of a toothed wheel of ferromagnetic material which is attached to the rotating

shaft.

• A pick-up coil is wound on a permanent magnet.

• As the wheel rotates, the teeth move past the coil and the air gap between the coil and the
ferromagnetic material changes.
Tachogenerator

Variable Reluctance Tachogenerator

• There is a magnetic circuit with an air gap which periodically changes.

• The flux linked by a pick-up coil change.

• The resulting cyclic change in the flux produces an alternating e.m.f. in the coil.
Tachogenerator

AC Generator Tachogenerator

• Consists of a coil (rotor), which rotates with the rotating shaft.

• Coil rotates in the magnetic field produced by a stationary permanent magnet or

electromagnet which results in an alternating e.m.f. induced.

• The amplitude/frequency of this alternating e.m.f. can be used as a measure of the

angular velocity.

Can be used to measure up-to 10000 rev/min.

Force Sensors
Strain Gauge Load Cell

• Used as force-measuring transducer.

• Based on the use of electrical resistance strain gauges to

monitor the strain produced when,
• Stretched by the application of the force.

• Compressed by the application of the force.

• Bent by the application of the force.

Generally referred to as a load cell.

Can be used for forces up-to 10MN.

Fluid Pressure Sensors
Fluid Pressure Sensors

• Many devices used to monitor fluid pressure in industrial processes involve the
monitoring of the elastic deformation of diaphragms, capsules, bellows and tubes.

• Types of pressure measurements,

• Absolute pressure

• Differential pressure

• Gauge pressure
Fluid Pressure Sensors

• For a diaphragm pressure sensor, when there is a difference in pressure between

the two sides then the center of the diaphragm becomes displaced. This movement
is monitored by a displacement sensor.
Fluid Pressure Sensors

• Capsules pressure sensors are mainly two corrugated diaphragms combined and
give even greater sensitivity.
Fluid Pressure Sensors

• A stack of capsules is a bellow pressure sensor which are even more sensitive.

• Bellows can be combined with an LVDT to give a pressure sensor with an electrical
output.
Piezoelectric Sensor

• Piezoelectric materials when stretched or compressed generate electric charges

with one face of the material becoming positively charged and the opposite face
negatively charged producing a voltage as a result.
Piezoelectric Sensor

• Piezoelectric materials are ionic crystals.

• The charge sensitivity depends on the material concerned and the orientation of its
crystals.

• Quartz is a commonly used material for this application.

Tactile Sensor

• It is a particular form of pressure sensor.

• Typically used on the fingertips of robotic hands to determine when a hand has
met an object.

• Tactile sensor uses piezoelectric polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film.

• Two layers of the film are used and are separated by a soft film which transmits
vibrations.
Tactile Sensor
Liquid Flow (Flow Rate) Sensors
Liquid Flow (Flow Rate) Sensors

• Traditional method of measuring the flow rate of liquids involves devices based
on the measurement of the pressure drop occurring when the fluid flows through a
constriction.

• Measurements of the pressure

difference can be used to give
a measure of the rate of flow.
Orifice Plate

• A disc, with a central hole which is placed in the tube through which the fluid is
flowing.

• The pressure difference is measured between a point equal to the diameter of the
tube upstream and a point equal to half the diameter downstream.

• Orifice plate is simple, cheap, with no moving

parts, and is widely used.

It is non-linear.
Turbine Flowmeter

• Consists of a multi-bladed rotor that is supported centrally in the pipe along which the flow
occurs.

• The fluid flow results in rotation of the rotor, the angular velocity being approximately
proportional to the flow rate.

• The rate of revolution of the rotor can be determined

using a magnetic pick-up.

• The pulses are used to determine the number of

revolutions of the rotor.
Liquid Level Sensors
Liquid Level Sensors

• The level of liquid in a vessel can be measured directly by monitoring the position
of the liquid surface.

• It can be indirectly measured by some variable related to the height.

• Direct methods can involve floats, and indirect methods includes monitoring the
weight of the vessel by load cells.
Floats

• A direct method of monitoring the level of liquid in a vessel is by monitoring the

movement of a float.

• The displacement of the float causes a lever arm to rotate and move a slider across
a potentiometer.

• The result is an output of a voltage related to the height of liquid.

Floats
Floats

• Same fundamentals are used in a float switch.

• However, a float switch cannot measure the liquid level throughout.

• It can only be in an on/off switching state.

• Other forms of this involve the lever causing the core in an LVDT to become
displaced or stretch or compress a strain-gauged element.
Floats
Differential Pressure

• Liquid level measurement based on the measurement of differential pressure can

take two forms.
• Differential pressure cell determines the pressure difference between the liquid at the base of
the vessel and atmospheric pressure.
• The differential pressure cell monitors the difference in pressure between the base of the
vessel and the air or gas above the surface of the liquid.
Differential Pressure
Temperature Sensors
Bi-Metallic Strip Thermostat

• Contact type temperature sensor or switch, that consists of two different metals such
as nickel, copper, tungsten or aluminium, that are bonded together to form a Bi-
metallic strip.

• The different linear expansion rates of the two dissimilar metals produces a
mechanical bending movement when the strip is subjected to heat.
Bi-Metallic Strip Thermostat

• The thermostat consists of two thermally

different metals stuck together back-to-back.

• When it is cold the contacts are closed.

• When it gets hot, one metal expands more than

the other and the bonded bi-metallic strip bends
up (or down) opening the contacts preventing the
current from flowing.
Thermistor

• A type of temperature sensor which is a special type of resistor which changes its
physical resistance when exposed to changes in temperature.

• THERM-ally sensitive res-ISTOR.

• Composed of semiconductor material which exhibits a large change in resistance

proportional to a small change in temperature.

• Generally made from ceramic materials such as oxides of nickel, manganese or

cobalt coated in glass
Thermistor
Thermistor

• Most types of thermistor’s are Negative Temperature Coefficient of resistance or

(NTC).
• Resistance value goes DOWN with an increase in the temperature.

• Other type is Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC).

Main advantages include the speed of response to any changes in

temperature, accuracy and repeatability.
Thermocouple

• Thermoelectric sensors that consists of two junctions of dissimilar metals, such as

copper and constantan that are welded or crimped together.

• One junction is kept at a constant temperature called the reference (Cold) junction,
while the other the measuring (Hot) junction.

• When the two junctions are at different temperatures, a voltage is developed across
the junction which is used to measure the temperature.
Thermocouple
Thermocouple

• The Thermocouple one of the most used type of temperature sensors.

• Thermocouples are popular due to its simplicity, ease of use and their speed of
response to changes in temperature.

• Thermocouples also have the widest temperature range of all the temperature sensors
from below -200°C to well over 2000°C.
Thermocouple
Thermo-diodes

• A junction semiconductor diode is widely used as a temperature sensor.

• When a p–n junction has a potential difference V across it, the current I through
the junction is a function of the temperature.

• For a constant current, V is proportional to the temperature on the Kelvin scale

Thermo-transistors

• The voltage across the base and emitter junction of a thermo-transistor depends on the
temperature and can be used as a measure of temperature.

• The difference in the base–emitter voltages is directly proportional to the temperature on

the Kelvin scale.
Light Sensors
Photoresistor (LDR)
Photodiode
Phototransistor
Selection of Sensors
Selection of Sensors

The nature of the measurement required

• The variable to be measured, its nominal value, the range of values, the accuracy
required, the required speed of measurement, the reliability required, the
environmental conditions under which the measurement is to be made.
Selection of Sensors

The nature of the output required from the sensor

• This determines the signal conditioning requirements in order to give suitable

output signals from the measurement.
Selection of Sensors

Identification of possible sensors

• Considering factors such as range, accuracy, linearity, speed of response,

reliability, maintainability, life, power supply requirements, ruggedness,
availability, and cost.
QUESTIONS?
- END -