Biogeochemical cycles, also known as nutrient cycles, describe the movement of chemical elements

through different media, such as the atmosphere, soil, rocks, bodies of water, and organisms.
Biogeochemical cycles keep essential elements available to plants and other organisms.

Importance of Biogeochemical Cycle

Biogeochemical cycles help in the regulation of natural elements that are necessary for living beings, by
channeling through physical and biological phenomena. It acts as a recycling procedure in nature.

Types of Biogeochemical Cycles

The types of nutrient cycles largely fall under –
1.Sedimentary cycles- Reservoir in the sedimentary biogeo cycle is Earth’s crust and includes earth-bound
elements such as phosphorus, calcium, iron, and sulfur among others.
2.Gaseous cycles- Reservoirs in the gaseous biogeo cycle are air or ocean and include carbon, oxygen, and
nitrogen.
Water cycle

Water from the land and oceans enters the atmosphere by evaporation or sublimation, where it condenses into clouds and falls as
rain or snow. Precipitated water may enter freshwater bodies or infiltrate the soil. The cycle is complete when surface or
groundwater reenters the ocean.
The Carbon Cycle

Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is converted to organic carbon through photosynthesis by terrestrial organisms (like trees) and marine
organisms (like algae). Respiration by terrestrial organisms (like trees and deer) and marine organisms (like algae and fish) release carbon
dioxide back into the atmosphere. Additionally, microbes that decompose dead organisms release carbon dioxide through respiration.
Weathering of terrestrial rocks also brings carbon into the soil. Carbon in the soil enters the water through leaching and runoff. It can
accumulate into ocean sediments and reenter land through uplifting. Long-term storage of organic carbon occurs when matter from living
organisms is buried deep underground and becomes fossilized. Volcanic activity and, more recently, human emissions stored carbon back
into the carbon cycle.
Importance of the Carbon Cycle
The carbon cycle is crucially important to the biosphere. If not for the recycling processes, carbon might long ago have become
completely sequestered in crustal rocks and sediments, and life would no longer exist. Photosynthesis not only makes energy and
carbon available to higher trophic levels, but it also releases gaseous oxygen (O 2). Gaseous oxygen is necessary for cellular respiration
to occur. Photosynthetic bacteria perform photosynthesis and due to their activity, and a diversity of present-day photosynthesizing
organisms occurs. O2 is vital for the creation of the ozone layer, which protects life from harmful ultraviolet radiation emitted by the
sun. Ozone (O3) is created from the breakdown and reassembly of O 2.

Human Alteration of the Carbon Cycle

Atmospheric CO2 concentration increased from 280 parts per million (ppm) to 413 ppm between the start of industrial revolution in
the late eighteenth century and 2020. This reflected a new flux in the global carbon cycle—anthropogenic CO 2 emissions—where
humans release CO2 into the atmosphere by burning fossil fuels and changing land use. Fossil fuel burning takes carbon from coal,
gas, and oil reserves, where it would be otherwise stored on very long time scales, and introduces it into the active carbon cycle. Land
use change releases carbon from soil and plant biomass pools into the atmosphere, particularly through the process of deforestation
for wood extraction or conversion of land to agriculture. In 2018, the additional flux of carbon into the atmosphere from
anthropogenic sources was estimated to be 36.6 gigatons of carbon (GtC = 1 billion tons of carbon)—a significant disturbance to the
natural carbon cycle that had been in balance for several thousand years previously. High levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
cause warming that results in climate change.
 The Nitrogen Cycle

In the nitrogen cycle, nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil or legume root nodules convert nitrogen gas (N 2) from the atmosphere to ammonium
(NH4+). Nitrification occurs when bacteria convert ammonium to nitrites (NO 2-) and then to nitrates (NO3-). Nitrates re-enter the atmosphere as
nitrogen gas through denitrification by bacteria. Plants assimilate ammonium and nitrates, producing organic nitrogen, which is available to
consumers. Decomposers, including aerobic and anaerobic bacteria and fungi, break down organic nitrogen and release ammonium through
ammonification
The Phosphorus Cycle

In nature, phosphorus exists as the phosphate ion (PO43-). Phosphate enters the atmosphere from volcanic aerosols, which precipitate to Earth.
Weathering of rocks also releases phosphate into the soil and water, where it becomes available to terrestrial food webs. Some of the phosphate
from terrestrial food webs dissolves in streams and lakes, and the remainder enters the soil. Phosphate enters the ocean via surface runoff,
groundwater flow, and river flow, where it becomes dissolved in ocean water or enters marine food webs. Some phosphate falls to the ocean floor
where it becomes sediment. If uplifting occurs, this sediment can return to land.
 The Sulfur Cycle

The sulfur cycle. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) from the atmosphere is dissolved in precipitation as weak sulfuric acid or falls directly to Earth as fallout.
This releases sulfates (SO42-) into the soil and water. Soil sulfates can be carried as runoff into the water. Marine sulfate can form pyrite, and this
can break down to release soil sulfates. Organisms in terrestrial and marine ecosystems assimilate sulfate, adding sulfur to organic molecules,
such as proteins (not shown). Decomposition of these organisms returns sulfates to the soil. Microorganisms can convert sulfates to hydrogen
sulfide (H2S) and vice versa. Decomposition, volcanic eruptions, and human activities (including burning fossil fuels) can release hydrogen sulfide
(H2S) or sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere.
Biogeochemical Cycle - Importance, Types and FAQ (vedantu.com)
Terrestrial Ecosystem:
•An estimated 148 million km2 (29%) of the earth’s surface is taken up by terrestrial ecosystems. They cover a wide range
of habitats, including icy polar regions, scorching tropical deserts, and lush temperate and tropical rainforests.
•Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial (land ecosystem) and non-terrestrial(non-land ecosystem) categories by their
geographical location. The three non-terrestrial habitats are aquatic, marine, and wetlands, whereas the five main
terrestrial ecosystems are desert, forest, grassland, taiga, and tundra.
Forest ecosystems
Forest ecosystems are an incredibly complex web of different tree and animal species, plus many fungi and
bacteria species interacting with one another. These types of ecosystems vary according to the climate they are
in; the world’s most biologically diverse ecosystems are found in tropical rainforests, which have many tree and
animal species.

Key characteristics of forest ecosystems include:

•Canopy: Forests are defined by their dense canopies, formed by tall trees that compete for sunlight. The
canopy provides shade and creates a unique microclimate, influencing temperature and humidity within the
ecosystem.
•Layers: Forests have distinct vertical layers, including the emergent layer (topmost), canopy layer, understory,
and forest floor. Each layer supports different species, from towering trees to smaller plants and various
animals.
•Biodiversity: Forests boast incredible biodiversity, housing countless species of plants, animals, and
microorganisms. They provide habitats for a diverse range of creatures, from large mammals to insects and
birds.
•Nutrient cycling: Forest ecosystems excel in nutrient cycling, where organic matter decomposes and releases
essential nutrients back into the soil. This process ensures the continuous growth and sustenance of the forest
community.
 Type of vegetation Flora and Fauna Distribution
•Two types of Tundra are there- Arctic and Alpine
•Arctic tundra- Polar ice cap and above tree line in the
Tundra •Flora- Willows, birches and lichens northern hemisphere and on the south pole, cover
•Fauna- Reindeer, Musk, Ox, Lemmings, Squirrel small area because most of it is covered by ocean.
•Alpine tundra- It occurs at the high mountain and are
found at all latitudes.
•Taiga- In this, tree shed their leaves in the cold
Taiga •Flora- Evergreen plants like spruce, fir, pine etc. season.
Coniferous (Boreal or temperate Deciduous forest) •Fauna- Lynx, wolf, bear, Redfox. •It is found in areas with warm moist summers and
cool winters.

Tropical evergreen forest •It includes the western slope of western ghat hill of
•Flora- Rosewood, Mahoganyincludes, Aini. Ebony Northeast, Andaman and Nicobar islands.

Semi-evergreen forest •It includes the western slope of western ghat hill of
•Flora- White-cedar, Hollocks, Kail Northeast, Andaman and Nicobar islands.
•100 – 200 cm- Include foothills of Himalaya in
Flora- Northeast India, eastern slopes of western ghats,
• 100 – 200cm- Teak, sal, shisham, hurry, Mahua, Orissa.
Deciduous forest
Amla, Semul, Kusum, Sandalwood. •70 – 100cm- Include rainy areas of the peninsula and
•70 -100cm- Tendu, palas, amaltas, bel, khair, plains of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar and some parts of
axlewood. Rajasthan.

Thorn forest •Flora- Babool, ber, wild date palm, khair, neem,
khejri, palas •Punjab, Gujarat, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh

•It includes reservoirs of the Deccan Plateau, lagoons

littoral and swamp forest •Flora- Mangroves of the Southwest coast, Saline expanses of Rajasthan,
•Fauna- the variety of birds Gujarat, Kutch, Freshwater lakes and reservoirs of
Gujarat etc.
Grassland ecosystems
•A variety of different grass species make up much of grassland ecosystems, along with different species of small
plants, shrubs, and sometimes the occasional tree. As a result, these types of ecosystems have lower biological diversity
than forests. However, a range of animal species, from mammals to insects, inhabit grasslands, with herbivores feeding
off the grass and carnivores consuming other animal species. About 10 to 25 percent of the Earth’s surface is made up
of the grassland ecosystem. It can be found in areas with annual precipitation of 15 to 75 cm.

•Typical grasslands are vegetation types that are typically found in climates with high temperatures.
Key characteristics of grassland ecosystems include:
•Grasses: Grasses, both tall and short, form the primary vegetation in grassland ecosystems. They have adapted to
withstand most harsh effects of grazing and fire, and their extensive root systems enable them to survive in nutrient-
poor soils.
•Herbivores: Grasslands support a diverse array of herbivores, including zebras, bison, antelopes, and prairie dogs.
These animals play a crucial role in shaping the grassland ecosystem by grazing on the abundant grasses.
•Fire adaptations: Grasslands are often subject to natural fires, and many plant species have evolved adaptations to
survive and even benefit from these fires. Some grasses and wildflowers have fire-resistant tissues or produce heat-
activated seeds.
•Seasonal changes: Grasslands experience distinct seasons, with periods of intense growth during the wet season
followed by dry seasons. These seasonal variations influence the abundance and behaviour of both plants and animals
in the ecosystem.
•These include Steppes in Europe and Asia, pampas in South America, Veldt in South Africa, and Downs in
Australia.

•They are primarily located in the high Himalayas of India. Steppes and savanna make up the majority of the
remaining grasslands in India. Sand and salty soils are extensively covered by steppe formations.

•Savannas and steppes differ significantly in that fodder. The former is primarily made up of grasses that grow both
during the wet and dry seasons, while in the latter, forage is only present during the brief wet season.
•Steppes, in contrast, are located in protected places and are farther from the equator. This indicates that their annual
precipitation is distributed uniformly. In such arid conditions, fewer big plants can establish themselves. More
extreme cold results from distance from the equator, and in certain northern steppes, snowfall rather than rain is
typical and slow-moving.
Desert ecosystems
These are arid areas with scanty amounts of flora. The nights are chilly, and the days are scorching.
A desert can be both hot and cold. It is a land with very little rainfall throughout the year (less than 50 cm per year). The
desert ecosystem is the world’s driest ecosystem.
These ecosystem lack of vegetation and low biological variety. Desert ecosystems' flora and animals have learned the
skill of enduring extreme environments.

Key characteristics of desert ecosystems include:

•Water scarcity: Deserts receive minimal rainfall, and water availability is a crucial limiting factor for life. Desert plants
have evolved strategies such as deep root systems, succulent leaves, or the ability to remain dormant for extended periods
to conserve water.
•Xerophytic adaptations: Xerophytes, plants adapted to arid conditions, often have small leaves, thick cuticles, and
spines to reduce water loss. Some desert animals, like camels, have specialised physiological mechanisms to conserve
water and tolerate high temperatures.
•Nocturnal activity: Many desert animals have adapted their behaviour to the extreme temperatures of the desert by
becoming nocturnal creatures. They are active during the cooler nighttime hours, conserving energy and avoiding the
scorching heat of the day.
•Sand dunes and rock formations: Deserts are often characterised by iconic features such as sand dunes and unique
rock formations. These geological structures are shaped by wind and water erosion over thousands of years, adding to the
scenic beauty of the desert landscape.
Tundra ecosystems
The tundra ecosystem has a relatively low biological diversity due to the incredibly harsh cold conditions during most of
the time of the year. Typical plant species include low-lying grasses, plants, and shrubs, which are designed to withstand
the frequent winds and heavy snowfalls that occur.
Trees are coniferous and found in slightly warmer parts of the tundra. The ecosystem is well-timed so that, during the
short summer.

Key characteristics of tundra ecosystems include:

•Permafrost: Tundra regions have a layer of permanently frozen subsoil called permafrost. This frozen ground restricts
the depth of plant roots and influences drainage patterns, shaping the overall ecosystem structure.
•Low vegetation: Tundra vegetation consists of hardy plants like mosses, lichens, and dwarf shrubs that can tolerate
cold temperatures and short growing seasons. These low-lying plants form intricate mats that insulate the soil and
provide habitats for small organisms.
•Migration and hibernation: Many tundra animals, such as caribou and Arctic foxes, undertake long-distance
migrations to find food during the brief summer months. Others, like bears, enter a state of hibernation to conserve
energy and survive the harsh winters.
•Fragile balance: Tundra ecosystems are particularly vulnerable to climate change. As temperatures rise, permafrost
thaws, altering drainage patterns and impacting the delicate balance of the ecosystem. This makes preserving tundra
regions crucial for mitigating harmful environmental effects.
 Mountain Ecosystem:
•Mountain ecosystem, is a community of living organisms found in mountainous areas. Mountain lands support a
diverse range of habitats for a wide variety of plants and animals. Higher altitudes have harsher environmental
conditions, and the present account is supported by treeless alpine vegetation. Montane forests are common on lower
slopes. At lower elevations, mountain lands transition into other types of landforms and vegetation, such as tropical or
temperate forests, savanna, scrubland, desert, or tundra.

•The Himalaya-Tibet region has the largest and highest area of mountain lands; the longest nearly continuous mountain
range in the Americas runs from Alaska in the north to Chile in the south. Other mountainous regions of note include
those in Europe (Alps, Pyrenees), Asia (Caucasus, Urals), New Guinea, New Zealand, and East Africa.
 Aquatic ecosystems

An aquatic ecosystem is defined as a community of organisms that live and interact with each other in a water-based
environment. This encompasses a wide range of environments, including (but not limited to) marshlands, lakes, rivers,
estuaries, seas, and oceans.

Key characteristics of aquatic ecosystems include:

•Saltwater and freshwater: Aquatic ecosystems can be divided into saltwater (marine) and freshwater (inland)
ecosystems. Each has unique characteristics and supports different organisms adapted to their specific salinity levels.
•Coral reefs and kelp forests: Coral reefs, found in tropical and subtropical regions, are hotspots of biodiversity,
providing habitat to numerous fish, corals, and other marine organisms. Kelp forests, in colder coastal waters, create
underwater forests that shelter a wide range of marine life.
•Wetlands and mangroves: Wetlands ecosystems are intermediate ecosystems between terrestrial & water habitats
(floodplains, littoral, etc). It is a land area that is saturated with water, either permanently or seasonally. Wetlands, include
marshes, swamps, and bogs. They act as vital ecosystems that serve as nurseries for many species and provide essential
services like water filtration. Mangroves in coastal areas act as protective barriers against storms and provide a habitat for
diverse marine life.

Freshwater ecosystem:
•lotic (moving like the river) ecosystem includes freshwater streams, springs etc.
•lentic (stagnant like a pond) ecosystem includes pools etc. In this ecosystem, salinity is less than 5 ppt.
Marine Ecosystem:

•Oceans cover almost 3/4 of the surface of the Earth. Both the ocean and the coastal ecosystems are included in this
ecosystem.
•Estuaries are part of it (Coastal bays, river mouths, and tidal marshes forms estuaries).
•In estuaries, saltwater from the ocean and freshwater from rivers mix together due to the action of the tides. When
compared to the nearby river or sea, estuaries are much more productive. Mangroves and coral reefs are also part of it.
Wetland Ecosystem:
In wetlands, the soil remains saturated for a longer period of time. Wetlands are flooded by water either
permanently or seasonally. Wetland ecosystems have variations in soils, landscape, vegetation, climate, etc.
Wetland ecosystems can be classified into four types, namely,
1.Marshes
2.Swamps
3.Bogs
4.Fens
Wetlands play an important role in preventing soil erosion. They host a wide variety of species, including reptiles,
fishes, and amphibians. Wetlands are the most productive ecosystems in the world. Wetlands provide habitat to
around 41% of the world’s total fish species.
Potential Threat to Ecosystems
Environmental Pollution
Air, land, water, and soil pollution simply destroy the health of crucial ecosystems. Be it as a result of natural or
anthropogenic causes, pollution potentially releases noxious substances and destructive chemicals into the environment
that damage the health of living things and degrades the nature of non-living things.

Over-exploitation of Natural Resources

The exploitation of the natural resources to the point of diminishing returns has significantly destroys the ecosystem.
Activities such as over hunting, over fishing, over mining, and excessive logging have led to a reduction in community
structures, population distributions, and species breeding. \

Invasive Species
Foreign species that find way into an ecosystem, either by human or natural initiation can wreck serious havoc on the
native members of the ecosystem. Whenever this happens, the native species can be wiped out completely or may find
it tough to survive.
Invasive species often compete for food with the native species and can also alter the habitat. This gradually destroys
ecosystems and leads to the extinction of species. According to WWF (World Wide Fund for Nature), the introduction
of alien Nile Tilapia into Lake Victoria in the 1970s led to the extinction of more than half of the native cichlid fish
family.
Eutrophication
Eutrophication is the excessive concentration of chemical nutrients in water bodies to an extent that it encourages the
dense growth of plant life and algae blooms. Based on the degree of eutrophication, the effects are depletion of
oxygen, extensive deterioration of water quality, poisoning of seafood and degradation of recreational opportunities.
As a result, it affects the survival of fish and other aquatic life forms. The presence of toxic algal blooms in water
bodies has endangered aquatic life and availability of quality water thus posing a threat to ecosystems.

Climate Change and Global Warming

Climate change and global warming are leading threats to the ecosystems. Changes in climates and global
temperatures directly impact the abiotic factors essential for sustaining the biotic elements. The present rate of rising
global temperatures is destroying and altering the coral reefs, mountain regions, water cycles, which are vital
ecosystems resources. For instance, different species requires particular abiotic factors to thrive. If global warming
and climate change continue, 10% of the entire world species might go extinct by 2050.
Ecosystems Under Threat
India’s Ecological Hotspots Under Threat
•The Western Ghats: A Threatened Ecosystem: Madhav Gadgil report described the Western Ghats as a biodiversity
treasure trove and designated the entire region as an ecologically sensitive area, in varying degrees.
• Threats
• Pollution, mining and deforestation.
• Original natural vegetation converted to cultivated lands, coffee and tea plantations.
• Hydroelectric reservoirs.
• Measures for Conservation
• Some form of protection is needed by balancing the development in the region.
• Gadgil committee report should be considered for the sustainable development of the Ghats as a whole.
•Himalayas: Unstable and Ecologically Fragile: It is one of the most unstable and fragile mountain regions in the
world.
• Threats
• It is witnessing one of the highest rates of warming globally, impacting the lifecycle and habitat of
several species.
• Due to warming, Glaciers are shrinking.
• Increase in the frequency of snow avalanches in the western Indian Himalayas poses a risk to the
people of the region.
• Overexploitation of natural resources, road buildings and hydroelectric dams.
• Measures for Conservation
• Anthropogenic activities like exploitation of natural resources, building of massive hydroelectric
dams etc should be controlled.

•Ganga: The Clean-up Challenge: The Ganga basin covers 26% of the country. Ganga-Brahmaputra basins
support the subsistence and commerce of more than 800 million people.
• Threats
• Water pollution and solid waste.
• Dams, barrages and irrigations indiscriminately extract water from the river.
• Measures for Conservation
• Problem of water pollution and unsafe disposal of solid waste should be tackled in a mission mode.
• Participation of all the stakeholders including the local community along the river basins.
•The Sunderban: A Critically Endangered Ecosystem: The world’s largest coastal mangrove forest, the Sunderbans,
stands as one of the most vulnerable regions to emergent threats posed by climate change.
Ecosystem services into four categories:

Provisioning services, or the supply of goods of direct benefit to people, and often with a clear monetary value, such
as timber from forests, medicinal plants, and fish from the oceans, rivers and lakes.

Regulating services, the range of functions carried out by ecosystems which are often of great value but generally not
given a monetary value in conventional markets. They include regulation of climate through the storing of carbon and
control of local rainfall, the removal of pollutants by filtering the air and water, and protection from disasters such as
landslides and coastal storms.

Cultural services, not providing direct material benefits, but contributing to wider needs and desires of society, and
therefore to people’s willingness to pay for conservation. They include the spiritual value attached to particular
ecosystems such as sacred groves, and the aesthetic beauty of landscapes or coastal formations that attract tourists

Supporting services, not of direct benefit to people but essential to the functioning of ecosystems and therefore
indirectly responsible for all other services. Examples are the formation of soils and the processes of plant growth
Ecosystems are dynamic communities of plants, animals, and microorganisms interacting with their physical
environment as a functional unit. An ecosystem can be

•Damaged means that there is a rapid, short-term harm done to a part of an ecosystem. Damage refers to an acute and
obvious harmful impact upon an ecosystem such as selective logging, road building, poaching, or invasions of non-
native species

•Degraded means that there is a long-term decline in biodiversity. chronic human impacts resulting in the loss of
biodiversity and the disruption of an ecosystem’s structure, composition, and functionality. Examples include: long-
term grazing impacts, long-term over fishing or hunting pressure, and persistent invasions by non-native species.

•Destroyed means that there is an unchecked decline that has led to a total or near-total loss of biodiversity.
Destruction is the most severe level of impact, when degradation or damage removes all macroscopic life and
commonly ruins the physical environment. Ecosystems are destroyed by such activities as land clearing, urbanization,
coastal erosion, and mining.
Ecosystem restoration

Ecological restoration is the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or
destroyed.

Restoration is a corrective step that involves eliminating or modifying causes of ecological degradation and re-
establishing the natural processes — like natural fires, floods, or predator-prey relationships — that sustain and renew
ecosystems over time.
Ecosystem restoration, or ecological restoration, is restoring an ecosystem to its natural state cost-effectively and sustainably.

Ecological restoration aims to create a healthy environment for humans and other organisms. Environmental restoration may
involve removing invasive species, reintroducing native species, restoring hydrological balance, or any number of different
activities intended to improve an area’s biodiversity and health.

The process is cyclical, where new plants and animals are reintroduced into the area, followed by predators to keep
populations in check.

Ecosystem restoration is essential for many reasons.

It helps replenish the number of species in an ecosystem.
improve biodiversity and its health
Restoration is a multi-step process, which may include some or all of these stages:

Assessing the site: A thorough appraisal of the current conditions at the restoration site is essential for determining what
kind of actions will be necessary. In this step, the causes of ecosystem disturbance and methods for stopping or reversing
them are identified.
Formulating project goals: To determine targets for the restored community, practitioners may visit reference sites
(similar, nearby environments in natural condition) and/or consult historical sources that detail the pre-disturbance
community. Goals may also include considerations of what species will be best suited to present or future climate
conditions.
•Removing sources of disturbance: Before restoration can be successful, forces of disturbance may need to be removed.
Examples include cessation of mining or farming or causes of erosion, restricting livestock from riparian areas, removing
toxic materials from soil or sediments, and eradicating invasive exotic species.
•Restoring processes/disturbance cycles: Sometimes restoring important ecological processes such as natural flood or fire
regimes is enough to restore ecosystem integrity. In these cases, native plants and animals that have evolved to tolerate or
require natural disturbance regimes may come back on their own without direct action by practitioners.
•Rehabilitating substrates: This can include any activity aimed at repairing altered soil texture or chemistry, or restoring
hydrological regimes or water quality.
•Restoring vegetation: In many cases, restoration activities involve direct revegetation of a site. Usually, native species
suited to local environmental conditions are chosen for planting. Seeds or cuttings are generally collected from a variety
of sources within a local region in order to ensure genetic diversity. Vegetation can be planted as seeds, or seedlings.
•Monitoring and maintenance: Monitoring the restoration site over time is critical to determining whether goals are
being met, and can inform future management decisions. Observations made at the site may indicate that further
action, such as periodic weed removal, is necessary in ensuring the long-term success of the project. Ideally
restoration projects would eventually achieve a self-sustaining ecosystem without the need for future human
intervention.

Approaches to restoration include

• passive restoration,
• active restoration,
• rehabilitation, and
• reclamation.
•Natural regeneration. Degraded areas, such as abandoned fields or logged areas, are allowed to naturally
reseed and return to grasslands or forests. Land managers often choose this approach when active
restoration is too expensive, when earlier restoration attempts have failed, or when experience has shown
that the ecosystem is resilient and can recover on its own.

•Rehabilitation. Land managers improve conditions of a degraded ecosystem by transitioning it to another,

different ecosystem type. For example, land managers could rehabilitate a degraded forest by
transitioning it to a tree plantation. Rehabilitation could involve replacing just a few species or many
species.

•Partial restoration. Land managers restore some ecosystem functions and some of the species that were
dominant or characteristic of the ecosystem. For example, as a part of a grassland restoration, land
managers might initially replant a few key species that are hardy and contribute to ecosystem
functioning; they could delay restoration of rare species until later phases.

•Complete restoration. Land managers restore an area to benchmark ecosystem structure, mix of species,
and ecosystem functioning. Complete restoration usually requires an active program to modify the site,
reintroduce native species, and eliminate or reduce the factors that were degrading the ecosystem.
Methods of Restoration

Restoration methods will vary depending on what is being restored and the end goals of the restoration effort.

Active restoration involves implementing management techniques

passive restoration occurs naturally with no direct interventions

TREE PLANTING Tree planting is the process of planting tree seedlings to reforest an area that has been cleared or
afforest an area that was not previously treed.
The benefits of tree planting include;
• increasing carbon storage
• increasing the amount of forest cover
• regenerating future forests
• connecting existing natural spaces
• increasing wildlife habitat
• conserving biodiversity
• conserving soil and water
• moderating the climate
• boosting the local economy by providing jobs for seed collectors, nurseries, and tree planters
Examples of ecological restoration projects

Walker Basin
Since 2005, legislators, private stakeholders, researchers, and restoration specialists have been working
together to restore and maintain a desert lake in western Nevada. Walker Lake is unusual because it is a
terminal lake; it has many inlets but no outlet. The long-term survival of Walker Lake’s ecosystem, fishery,
and associated economy are threatened by water diversions that lowered the water level by approximately 46
metres (about 150 feet) and raised salinity levels substantially. Like many other ecological restoration efforts,
the Walker Basin project exists within a complex political, economic, social, and ecological context. To return
water to Walker Lake, restorationists obtain water rights from farmers upstream and then convert existing
agricultural land to drought-resistant crops or native desert vegetation. Ecologists continue to monitor
whether changes in upstream water use are improving the health of Walker Lake. Since 2009 the project has
continued to acquire water rights and instituted a voluntary program in which landowners upstream reduce
their water use, allowing more water to flow into the basin.

Calcareous grasslands
In parts of northern Europe, calcareous grasslands (grasslands growing on thin alkaline soils) are being
restored on land previously managed for agriculture. These sites were historically characterized by nutrient-
poor, often acidic soils supporting a unique flora. Restoration practices after years of fertilization for crops
often involve some form of soil impoverishment (topsoil removal and repeated biomass removal) and
acidification followed by oversowing with native plant species. Many of these sites are now mature and retain
their restored plant associations.
Conservation
Refers to the protection of and sustainable use of resources within ecosystems.
Common examples of conservation include:
•creation of wildlife sanctuaries, national parks, and protected areas;
•restrictions on areas, seasons, and amount of hunting to reduce wildlife killed each year; and
•government regulations on the use of natural resources and disposal of waste.

Ecosystem stability could be the result of one or both of two qualities: resistance and resilience.
Resistance is the ability of an ecosystem to retain the same characteristic communities and natural cycles
throughout and after a disturbance event, while
resilience is the ability of an ecosystem to rapidly recover or adapt after a disturbance event.