Page Replacement

Given the following page reference string

Number of frames: 3

Question: Find the number of page faults using the

FIFO Page Replacement
Optimal Page replacement
LRU Page Replacement
LFU Page replacement
MFU page replacement

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.1 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Page Replacement

Consider the reference string 6, 1, 1, 2, 0, 3, 4, 6, 0, 2, 1, 2, 1, 2, 0, 3, 2, 1, 2, 0

Number of frames: 3

Question: Find the number of page faults using the

FIFO Page Replacement
Optimal Page replacement
LRU Page Replacement
LFU
MFU

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.2 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Chapter 11:
File-System Interface

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne

 Chapter 11: File-System Interface

 File Concept
 Access Methods
 Disk and Directory Structure
 File-System Mounting
 File Sharing
 Protection

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.4 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 File Concept
 Contiguous logical address space
 Types:
 Data
 numeric
 character
 binary
 Program
 Contents defined by file’s creator
 Many types
 Consider text file, source file, executable file

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.5 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 File Attributes
 Name – only information kept in human-readable form
 Identifier – unique tag (number) identifies file within file
system
 Type – needed for systems that support different types
 Location – pointer to file location on device
 Size – current file size
 Protection – controls who can do reading, writing,
executing
 Time, date, and user identification – data for protection,
security, and usage monitoring
 Information about files are kept in the directory
structure, which is maintained on the disk
 Many variations, including extended file attributes such
as file checksum
 Information kept in the directory structure

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.6 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 File Operations
 File is an abstract data type
 Create
 Write – at write pointer location
 Read – at read pointer location
 Reposition within file - seek
 Delete
 Truncate
 Open(Fi) – search the directory structure on disk
for entry Fi, and move the content of entry to
memory
 Close (Fi) – move the content of entry Fi in
memory to directory structure on disk

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.7 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Open Files
 Several pieces of data are needed to manage
open files:
 Open-file table: tracks open files
 File pointer: pointer to last read/write
location, per process that has the file open
 File-open count: counter of number of times a
file is open – to allow removal of data from
open-file table when last processes closes it
 Disk location of the file: cache of data access
information
 Access rights: per-process access mode
information

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.8 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Open File Locking
 Provided by some operating systems and file
systems
 Similar to reader-writer locks
 Shared lock similar to reader lock – several
processes can acquire concurrently
 Exclusive lock similar to writer lock
 Mediates access to a file
 Mandatory or advisory:
 Mandatory – access is denied depending on locks
held and requested
 Advisory – processes can find status of locks and
decide what to do

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.9 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 File Types – Name, Extension

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.10 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Access Methods
 Sequential Access
read next
write next
reset
no read after last write
(rewrite)
 Direct Access – file is fixed length logical records
read n
write n
position to n
read next
write next
rewrite n
n = relative block number

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.11 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Sequential-access File

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.12 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Simulation of Sequential Access on Direct-access File

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.13 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Other Access Methods

 Can be built on top of base methods

 General involve creation of an index for the file
 Keep index in memory for fast determination of
location of data to be operated on (consider UPC
code plus record of data about that item)
 If too large, index (in memory) of the index (on
disk)
 IBM indexed sequential-access method (ISAM)
 Small master index, points to disk blocks of
secondary index
 File kept sorted on a defined key
 All done by the OS
 VMS operating system provides index and relative
files as another example (see next slide)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.14 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Example of Index and Relative Files

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.15 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Directory Structure

 A collection of nodes containing information about all

files

Directory

Files
F1 F2 F4
F3
Fn

Both the directory structure and the files reside on disk

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.16 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Disk Structure
 Disk can be subdivided into partitions
 Disks or partitions can be RAID protected against
failure
 Disk or partition can be used raw – without a file
system, or formatted with a file system
 Partitions also known as minidisks, slices
 Entity containing file system known as a volume
 Each volume containing file system also tracks that
file system’s info in device directory or volume
table of contents
 As well as general-purpose file systems there are
many special-purpose file systems, frequently all
within the same operating system or computer

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.17 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 A Typical File-system Organization

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.18 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Operations Performed on Directory
 Search for a file

 Create a file

 Delete a file

 List a directory

 Rename a file

 Traverse the file system

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.19 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Directory Organization

The directory is organized logically to obtain

 Efficiency – locating a file quickly

 Naming – convenient to users
 Two users can have same name for
different files
 The same file can have several different
names
 Grouping – logical grouping of files by
properties, (e.g., all Java programs, all games,
…)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.20 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Single-Level Directory
 A single directory for all users

 Naming problem
 Grouping problem

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.21 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Two-Level Directory
 Separate directory for each user

 Path name
 Can have the same file name for different user
 Efficient searching
 No grouping capability

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.22 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Tree-Structured Directories/ Hierarchical

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.23 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Tree-Structured Directories (Cont)
 Absolute or relative path name
 Creating a new file is done in current directory
 Delete a file
rm <file-name>
 Creating a new subdirectory is done in current
directory
mkdir <dir-name>
Example: if in current directory /mail
mkdir count

Deleting “mail”  deleting the entire subtree rooted

by “mail”

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.24 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Acyclic-Graph Directories
 Have shared subdirectories and files

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.25 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Acyclic-Graph Directories (Cont.)
 Two different names (aliasing)
 If dict deletes list  dangling pointer
Solutions:
 Backpointers, so we can delete all pointers
Variable size records a problem
 Backpointers using a daisy chain organization
 Entry-hold-count solution
 New directory entry type
 Link – another name (pointer) to an existing file
 Resolve the link – follow pointer to locate the file

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.26 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 General Graph Directory

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.27 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 General Graph Directory (Cont.)
 How do we guarantee no cycles?
 Allow only links to file not subdirectories
 Garbage collection
 Every time a new link is added use a cycle
detection algorithm to determine whether it is
OK

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.28 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 File System Mounting
 A file system must be mounted before it can be
accessed
 A unmounted file system (i.e., Fig. 11-11(b)) is
mounted at a mount point

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.29 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 File system

A file system is a method an operating system uses to store, organize, and

manage files and directories on a storage device. Some common types of file
systems include:
1. FAT (File Allocation Table): An older file system used by older versions
of Windows and other operating systems.
2. NTFS (New Technology File System): A modern file system used by
Windows. It supports features such as file and folder permissions,
compression, and encryption.
3. ext (Extended File System): A file system commonly used on Linux and
Unix-based operating systems.
4. HFS (Hierarchical File System): A file system used by macOS.
5. APFS (Apple File System): A new file system introduced by Apple for
their Macs and iOS devices.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.30 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 File Sharing
 Sharing of files on multi-user systems is desirable
 Sharing may be done through a protection scheme
 On distributed systems, files may be shared across
a network
 Network File System (NFS) is a common distributed
file-sharing method
 If multi-user system
 User IDs identify users, allowing permissions and
protections to be per-user
Group IDs allow users to be in groups, permitting
group access rights
 Owner of a file / directory
 Group of a file / directory

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.31 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 File Sharing – Remote File Systems
 Uses networking to allow file system access between
systems
 Manually via programs like FTP
 Automatically, seamlessly using distributed file
systems
 Semi automatically via the world wide web
 Client-server model allows clients to mount remote file
systems from servers
 Server can serve multiple clients
 Client and user-on-client identification is insecure or
complicated
 NFS is standard UNIX client-server file sharing
protocol
 CIFS is standard Windows protocol
 Standard operating system file calls are translated into
remote calls
 Distributed Information Systems (distributed naming
Operating Systemservices) such as LDAP, 11.32
Concepts – 9 Edition
th
DNS, NIS, Active Directory
Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Protection
 File owner/creator should be able to control:
 what can be done
 by whom
 Types of access
 Read
 Write
 Execute
 Append
 Delete
 List

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.33 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Access Lists and Groups
 Mode of access: read, write, execute
 Three classes of users on Unix / Linux
RWX
a) owner access 7  111
RWX
b) group access 6  110
RWX
c) public access1  001
 Ask manager to create a group (unique name), say G,
and add some users to the group.
 For a particular file (say game) or subdirectory, define
an appropriate access.

Attach a group to a file

chgrp G game

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.34 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Windows 7 Access-Control List Management

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.35 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 A Sample UNIX Directory Listing

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.36 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 File-System Structure
 File structure
 Logical storage unit
 Collection of related information
 File system resides on secondary storage (disks)
 Provided user interface to storage, mapping
logical to physical
 Provides efficient and convenient access to disk
by allowing data to be stored, located retrieved
easily
 Disk provides in-place rewrite and random access
 I/O transfers performed in blocks of sectors
(usually 512 bytes)
 File control block – storage structure consisting of
information about a file
 Device driver controls the physical device
 File system organized into layers

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.37 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Layered File System

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.38 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 File System Layers
 Device drivers manage I/O devices at the I/O control
layer
 Given commands like “read drive1, cylinder 72,
track 2, sector 10, into memory location 1060”
outputs low-level hardware specific commands to
hardware controller
 Basic file system given command like “retrieve block
123” translates to device driver
 Also manages memory buffers and caches (allocation,
freeing, replacement)
 Buffers hold data in transit
 Caches hold frequently used data
 File organization module understands files, logical
address, and physical blocks
 Translates logical block # to physical block #
 Manages free space, disk allocation

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.39 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 File-System Implementation (Cont.)
 Per-file File Control Block (FCB) contains many
details about the file
 inode number, permissions, size, dates
 NFTS stores into in master file table using
relational DB structures

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.40 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Allocation Methods - Contiguous

 Contiguous Allocation: Stores a file in contiguous

blocks of memory, which simplifies access but can
lead to fragmentation.
 Linked Allocation: Stores files as linked lists of
blocks scattered throughout the disk, which
eliminates fragmentation but complicates access.
 Indexed Allocation: Uses an index block to keep
track of all the blocks used by a file, combining the
benefits of contiguous and linked allocation.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.41 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Allocation Methods - Contiguous

 An allocation method refers to how disk blocks are

allocated for files:
 Contiguous allocation – each file occupies set of
contiguous blocks
 Best performance in most cases
 Simple – only starting location (block #) and
length (number of blocks) are required
 Problems include finding space for file, knowing
file size, external fragmentation, need for
compaction off-line (downtime) or on-line

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.42 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Contiguous Allocation

 Mapping from logical to

physical

LA/512

Block to be accessed = Q
+ starting address
Displacement into block =
R

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.43 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Contiguous Allocation: Disadv

 External fragmentation
will occur, making it
difficult to find contiguous
blocks of space of
sufficient length. A
compaction algorithm will
be necessary to free up
additional space on the
disk.
 Also, with pre-allocation,
it is necessary to declare
the size of the file at the
time of creation.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.44 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Allocation Methods - Linked
 Linked allocation – each file a linked list of blocks
 File ends at nil pointer
 No external fragmentation
 Each block contains pointer to next block
 No compaction, external fragmentation
 Free space management system called when new
block needed
 Improve efficiency by clustering blocks into
groups but increases internal fragmentation
 Reliability can be a problem
 Locating a block can take many I/Os and disk
seeks

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.45 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Linked Allocation

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.46 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Linked Allocation: Disadv.
 Internal fragmentation exists in the last disk block of the file.
 There is an overhead of maintaining the pointer in every disk
block.
 If the pointer of any disk block is lost, the file will be
truncated.
 It supports only the sequential access of files.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.47 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 File-Allocation Table

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.48 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Allocation Methods - Indexed

 Indexed allocation
 Each file has its own index block(s) of pointers to its data
blocks

 Logical view

index table

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.49 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Example of Indexed Allocation

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.50 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Indexed Allocation – Mapping (Cont.)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.51 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Combined Scheme: UNIX UFS
4K bytes per block, 32-bit addresses

More index blocks than can be addressed with 32-bit file pointer

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.52 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Performance
 Best method depends on file access type
 Contiguous great for sequential and random
 Linked good for sequential, not random
 Declare access type at creation -> select either
contiguous or linked
 Indexed more complex
 Single block access could require 2 index block
reads then data block read
 Clustering can help improve throughput, reduce
CPU overhead

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.53 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Free-Space Management

 Just as the space that is allocated to files must be managed,

so the space that is not currently allocated to any file must
be managed.
 To perform any of the file allocation techniques, it is
necessary to know what blocks on the disk are available.
 Thus we need a disk allocation table in addition to a file
allocation table.
 BIT tables
 Free Block List

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.54 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Free-Space Management

 File system maintains free-space list to track available

blocks/clusters
 (Using term “block” for simplicity)
 Bit vector or bit map (n blocks)
0 1 2 n-1
…

1  block[i] free

bit[i] =
0  block[i] occupied

 This method uses a vector containing one bit for each

block on the disk. Each entry for a 0 corresponds to a
free block and each 1 corresponds to a block in use.
 For example 00011010111100110001
 In this vector every bit corresponds to a particular
block and 0 implies that that particular block is free
and 1 implies that the block is already occupied.
Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.55 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Free Block List
 In this method, each block is assigned a number
sequentially and the list of the numbers of all free
blocks is maintained in a reserved block of the
disk.

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.56 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Linked Free Space List on Disk
 Linked list (free list)
 Cannot get
contiguous space
easily
 No waste of space
 No need to traverse
the entire list (if #
free blocks
recorded)

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.57 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Free-Space Management (Cont.)
 Grouping
 Modify linked list to store address of next n-1 free
blocks in first free block, plus a pointer to next
block that contains free-block-pointers (like this
one)
 Counting
 Because space is frequently contiguously used and
freed, with contiguous-allocation allocation,
extents, or clustering
 Keep address of first free block and count of
following free blocks
 Free space list then has entries containing
addresses and counts

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.58 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Efficiency and Performance

 Efficiency dependent on:

 Disk allocation and directory algorithms
 Types of data kept in file’s directory entry
 Pre-allocation or as-needed allocation of
metadata structures
 Fixed-size or varying-size data structures

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.59 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Efficiency and Performance (Cont.)
 Performance
 Keeping data and metadata close together
 Buffer cache – separate section of main memory
for frequently used blocks
 Synchronous writes sometimes requested by apps
or needed by OS
 No buffering / caching – writes must hit disk
before acknowledgement
 Asynchronous writes more common, buffer-able,
faster
 Free-behind and read-ahead – techniques to
optimize sequential access
 Reads frequently slower than writes

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.60 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Page Cache

 A page cache caches pages rather than disk blocks

using virtual memory techniques and addresses

 Memory-mapped I/O uses a page cache

 Routine I/O through the file system uses the buffer (disk)
cache

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.61 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Recovery

 Consistency checking – compares data in directory

structure with data blocks on disk, and tries to fix
inconsistencies
 Can be slow and sometimes fails

 Use system programs to back up data from disk to

another storage device (magnetic tape, other
magnetic disk, optical)

 Recover lost file or disk by restoring data from

backup

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.62 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 File operations

 The operation performed on the directory are:

• Search for a file
• Create a file
• Delete a file
• List a directory
• Rename a file
• Traverse the file system

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.63 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Basic Windows Commands
 systeminfo: provides detailed information about the system
configuration, including the operating system version,
hardware details, network configuration, and more.
 vol: to check the drive
 date
 date /t
 time
 time /t
 dir/ mkdir
 REN: Rename
 type nul> file1.txt (To create a file)
 notepad file1.txt
 del file1.txt or erase file1.txt
 attrib

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.64 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Basic Windows Commands
 systeminfo: provides detailed information about the system
configuration, including the operating system version,
hardware details, network configuration, and more.
 vol: to check the drive
 date
 date /t
 time
 time /t
 dir/ mkdir
 REN: Rename
 type nul> file1.txt (To create a file)
 notepad file1.txt
 del file1.txt or erase file1.txt
 attrib

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.65 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Basic Windows Commands
 systeminfo: provides detailed information about the system
configuration, including the operating system version,
hardware details, network configuration, and more.
 vol: to check the drive
 date
 date /t
 time
 time /t
 dir/ mkdir
 REN: Rename
 type nul> file1.txt (To create a file)
 notepad file1.txt
 del file1.txt or erase file1.txt
 attrib

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.66 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Basic Windows Commands
 Create a directory by your course name; the directory must
contain files of three topics by their name.
 Give the snapshot of the output screen which shows the
permissions these files and the section directory has.

 Create the following directory and file hierarchy

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.67 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Basic Linux Commands
 cat- It is used to create a file, copy, display contents and
concatenating two files.
 Syntax –cat filename
 $cat>filename
 $ cat> f1 // Creates file f1
 $ cat f1 // Displays contents of file f1
 $ cat f1>f2 // Copies contents of f1 to f2
 $ cat f1 f2>f3 // concatenates contents of fi and f2 to
file f3

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.68 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Basic Linux Commands
 cp- to copy the contents of one file to another file.
 Syntax- cp source filename target filename
 $ cp f1 f2 // copies file f1 to f2
 mv- move contents of one file to another.
 Syntax- mv source filename target filename
 rm- Remove files.
 Syntax: rm [options] <filname>

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.69 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Basic Linux Commands
 cd Change directory.
Usage: cd
Eg: cd my-directory cd go to home directory cd .. go up one
directory

 pwd: Print working directory on the terminal.

 ls: List the content of a directory.
 4. mkdir Create a new directory.
Usage: mkdir directory-pa th
 5. rmdir: Remove a directory if its empty.
Usage: rmdir directory-path

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.70 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 Basic Linux Commands
 Create a directory by your course name; the directory must
contain files of three topics by their name.
 Give the snapshot of the output screen which shows the
permissions these files and the section directory has.

 Create the following directory and file hierarchy

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition 11.71 Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne
 End of Chapter 11

Operating System Concepts – 9th Edition Silberschatz, Galvin and Gagne