Chapter 2: Relational Model

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed.

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use
 Relation Schema
 A1, A2, …, An are attributes

 R = (A1, A2, …, An ) is a relation schema

Example:
Customer_schema = (customer_name, customer_street,
customer_city)

 r(R) denotes a relation r on the relation schema R

Example:
customer (Customer_schema)

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.2 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Relational Algebra
 Procedural language
 Six basic operators
 select: 
 project: 
 union: 
 set difference: –
 Cartesian product: x
 rename: 
 The operators take one or two relations as inputs and
produce a new relation as a result.

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.3 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Select Operation – Example
 Relation r
A B C D

  1 7
  5 7
  12 3
  23 10

 A=B ^ D > 5 (r)

A B C D

  1 7
  23 10

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.4 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Select Operation
 Notation:  p(r)
 p is called the selection predicate
 Defined as:

p(r) = {t | t  r and p(t)}

Where p is a formula in propositional calculus consisting

of terms connected by :  (and),  (or),  (not)
Each term is one of:
<attribute> op <attribute> or <constant>
where op is one of: =, , >, . <. 

 Example of selection:

 branch_name=“Perryridge” (account)

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.5 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Project Operation – Example
 Relation r: A B C

 10 1
 20 1
 30 1
 40 2

A,C (r) A C A C

 1  1
 1 =  1
 1  2
 2

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.6 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Project Operation
 Notation:
 A1 , A2 ,, Ak (r )
where A1, A2 are attribute names and r is a relation name.
 The result is defined as the relation of k columns obtained
by erasing the columns that are not listed
 Duplicate rows removed from result, since relations are
sets
 Example: To eliminate the branch_name attribute of
account

account_number, balance (account)

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.7 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Union Operation – Example
 Relations r, s: A B A B

 1  2
 2  3
 1 s
r

A B
 r  s:  1
 2
 1
 3

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.8 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Union Operation
 Notation: r  s
 Defined as:
r  s = {t | t  r or t  s}
 For r  s to be valid.
1. r, s must have the same arity (same number of
attributes)
2. The attribute domains must be compatible (example:
2nd column
of r deals with the same type of values as does the 2nd
column of s)
 Example: to find all customers with either an account or a
loan
customer_name (depositor)  customer_name (borrower)

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.9 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Set Difference Operation –
Example
 Relations r, s:
A B A B

 1  2
 2  3
 1 s
r

 r – s:
A B

 1
 1

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.10 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Set Difference Operation
 Notation r – s
 Defined as:
r – s = {t | t  r and t  s}

 Set differences must be taken between

compatible relations.
 r and s must have the same arity
 attribute domains of r and s must be
compatible

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.11 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Cartesian-Product Operation –
Example
 Relations r, s:
A B C D E

 1  10 a
 10 a
 2  20 b
r  10 b


s
r x s:
A B C D E
 1  10 a
 1  10 a
 1  20 b
 1  10 b
 2  10 a
 2  10 a
 2  20 b
 2  10 b

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.12 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Cartesian-Product Operation
 Notation r x s
 Defined as:
r x s = {t q | t  r and q  s}

 Assume that attributes of r(R) and s(S) are disjoint. (That

is, R  S = ).
 If attributes of r(R) and s(S) are not disjoint, then
renaming must be used.

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.13 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Composition of Operations
 Can build expressions using multiple operations
 Example: A=C(r x s)
 rxs
A B C D E
 1  10 a
 1  10 a
 1  20 b
 1  10 b
 2  10 a
 2  10 a
 2  20 b
 2  10 b
 A=C(r x s)
A B C D E
 1  10 a
 2  10 a
 2  20 b

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.14 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Rename Operation
 Allows us to name, and therefore to refer to, the results of
relational-algebra expressions.
 Allows us to refer to a relation by more than one name.
 Example:
 x (E)

returns the expression E under the name X

 If a relational-algebra expression E has arity n, then

 x ( A ,A 1 2 ,..., An )
(E )

returns the result of expression E under the name X, and

with the
attributes renamed to A1 , A2 , …., An .

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.15 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Banking Example
branch (branch_name, branch_city, assets)

customer (customer_name, customer_street,

customer_city)

account (account_number, branch_name, balance)

loan (loan_number, branch_name, amount)

depositor (customer_name, account_number)

borrower (customer_name, loan_number)

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.16 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
 Find all loans of over $1200

amount > 1200 (loan)

 Find the loan number for each loan of an amount greater

than $1200

loan_number (amount > 1200 (loan))

 Find the names of all customers who have a loan, an

account, or both, from the bank

customer_name (borrower)  customer_name (depositor)

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.17 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
 Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the
Perryridge branch.

customer_name (branch_name=“Perryridge”
(borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number(borrower x
loan)))
 Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the
Perryridge branch but do not have an account at any
branch of
the bank.
customer_name (branch_name = “Perryridge”

(borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number(borrower x loan))) –

customer_name(depositor)
atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.18 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Example Queries
 Find the names of all customers who have a loan at the
Perryridge branch.

 Query 1

customer_name (branch_name = “Perryridge” (

borrower.loan_number = loan.loan_number (borrower x
loan)))
 Query 2

customer_name(loan.loan_number = borrower.loan_number
(
(branch_name = “Perryridge” (loan)) x
borrower))
atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.19 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Formal Definition
 A basic expression in the relational algebra consists of either
one of the following:
 A relation in the database
 A constant relation
 Let E1 and E2 be relational-algebra expressions; the following
are all relational-algebra expressions:
 E1  E2

 E1 – E2

 E1 x E2

 p (E1), P is a predicate on attributes in E1

 s(E1), S is a list consisting of some of the attributes in E1

  x (E1), x is the new name for the result of E1

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.20 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Additional Operations
We define additional operations that do not add any power to
the
relational algebra, but that simplify common queries.

 Set intersection
 Natural join
 Division
 Assignment

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.21 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Set-Intersection Operation
 Notation: r  s
 Defined as:
 r  s = { t | t  r and t  s }
 Assume:
 r, s have the same arity
 attributes of r and s are compatible
 Note: r  s = r – (r – s)

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.22 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Set-Intersection Operation –
Example
 Relation r, s:
A B A B
 1  2
 2  3
 1

r s

 rs
A B

 2

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.23 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Natural-Join Operation
 Notation: r s
 Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S respectively.
Then, r s is a relation on schema R  S obtained as
follows:
 Consider each pair of tuples tr from r and ts from s.
 If tr and ts have the same value on each of the attributes
in R  S, add a tuple t to the result, where
 t has the same value as tr on r

 t has the same value as ts on s

 Example:
R = (A, B, C, D)
S = (E, B, D)
 Result schema = (A, B, C, D, E)
 r s is defined as:

r.A, Oct
atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, r.B,5,r.C,
2006 r.D, s.E (r.B
2.24= s.B
 r.D = s.D (r ©Silberschatz,
x s)) Korth and Sudarshan
 Natural Join Operation – Example
 Relations r, s:

A B C D B D E

 1  a 1 a 
 2  a 3 a 
 4  b 1 a 
 1  a 2 b 
 2  b 3 b 
r s

 r s
A B C D E
 1  a 
 1  a 
 1  a 
 1  a 
 2  b 

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.25 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Division Operation

 Notation: r  s
 Suited to queries that include the phrase “for all”.
 Let r and s be relations on schemas R and S
respectively where
 R = (A1, …, Am , B1, …, Bn )
 S = (B1, …, Bn)
The result of r  s is a relation on schema
R – S = (A1, …, Am)

rs={t | t R-S (r)   u  s ( tu 

r)}
Where tu means the concatenation of tuples t
and u to produce a single tuple

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.26 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Division Operation – Example
 Relations r, s:
A B B
 1
1
 2
 3 2
 1 s
 1
 1
 3
 4
 6
 1
 2
 r  s: A r




atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.27 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Another Division Example
 Relations r, s:

A B C D E D E

 a  a 1 a 1
 a  a 1 b 1
 a  b 1 s
 a  a 1
 a  b 3
 a  a 1
 a  b 1
 a  b 1
r
 r  s:
A B C

 a 
 a 

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.28 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Assignment Operation
 The assignment operation () provides a convenient way to
express complex queries.
 Write query as a sequential program consisting of
 a series of assignments
 followed by an expression whose value is displayed as
a result of the query.
 Assignment must always be made to a temporary relation
variable.
 Example: Write r  s as

temp1  R-S (r )
temp2  R-S ((temp1 x s ) – R-S,S (r ))
result = temp1 – temp2
 The result to the right of the  is assigned to the relation
variable on the left of the .
 May use variable in subsequent expressions.

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.29 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Bank Example Queries
 Find all customers who have an account from at least
the “Downtown” and the Uptown” branches.
 Query 1

customer_name (branch_name = “Downtown” (depositor

account )) 

customer_name (branch_name = “Uptown” (depositor

 Query 2
account))
customer_name, branch_name (depositor account)
 temp(branch_name) ({(“Downtown” ),
(“Uptown” )})
Note that Query 2 uses a constant relation.

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.30 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Extended Relational-Algebra-
Operations
 Generalized Projection
 Aggregate Functions
 Outer Join

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.31 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Generalized Projection
 Extends the projection operation by allowing arithmetic
functions to be used in the projection list.

 F1 ,F2 ,..., Fn (E )
 E is any relational-algebra expression
 Each of F1, F2, …, Fn are are arithmetic expressions
involving constants and attributes in the schema of E.
 Given relation credit_info(customer_name, limit,
credit_balance), find how much more each person can
spend:
customer_name, limit – credit_balance (credit_info)

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.32 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Functions and
Operations
 Aggregation function takes a collection of values and
returns a single value as a result.
avg: average value
min: minimum value
max: maximum value
sum: sum of values
count: number of values
 Aggregate operation in relational algebra

G1 ,G2 ,,Gn F ( A ),F ( A ,,F ( A ) (E )

1 1 2 2 n n

E is any relational-algebra expression

 G1, G2 …, Gn is a list of attributes on which to group
(can be empty)
 Each Fi is an aggregate function
 Each Ai is an attribute name

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.33 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Operation – Example
 Relation r:

A B C

  7
  7
  3
  10

 g sum(c) (r) sum(c )

27

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.34 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Operation – Example
 Relation account grouped by branch-name:

branch_name
account_number balance
Perryridge A-102 400
Perryridge A-201 900
Brighton A-217 750
Brighton A-215 750
Redwood A-222 700

branch_name g sum(balance) (account)

branch_namesum(balance)
Perryridge 1300
Brighton 1500
Redwood 700

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.35 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Aggregate Functions (Cont.)
 Result of aggregation does not have a name
 Can use rename operation to give it a name
 For convenience, we permit renaming as part of
aggregate operation

branch_name g sum(balance) as sum_balance (account)

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.36 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Outer Join
 An extension of the join operation that avoids loss of
information.
 Computes the join and then adds tuples form one relation
that does not match tuples in the other relation to the
result of the join.
 Uses null values:
 null signifies that the value is unknown or does not
exist
 All comparisons involving null are (roughly speaking)
false by definition.
 We shall study precise meaning of comparisons
with nulls later

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.37 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Outer Join – Example
 Relation loan

loan_numberbranch_name amount
L-170 Downtown 3000
L-230 Redwood 4000
L-260 Perryridge 1700

 Relation borrower

customer_name
loan_number
Jones L-170
Smith L-230
Hayes L-155

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.38 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Outer Join – Example
 Join

loan borrower

loan_numberbranch_name amountcustomer_name
L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones
L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith

 Left Outer Join

loan borrower
loan_numberbranch_name amountcustomer_name
L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones
L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith
L-260 Perryridge 1700 null

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.39 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Outer Join – Example
 Right Outer Join

loan borrower

loan_numberbranch_name amountcustomer_name
L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones
L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith
L-155 null null Hayes
 Full Outer Join

loan borrower
loan_numberbranch_name amountcustomer_name
L-170 Downtown 3000 Jones
L-230 Redwood 4000 Smith
L-260 Perryridge 1700 null
L-155 null null Hayes

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.40 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Null Values
 It is possible for tuples to have a null value, denoted by
null, for some of their attributes
 null signifies an unknown value or that a value does not
exist.
 The result of any arithmetic expression involving null is
null.
 Aggregate functions simply ignore null values (as in
SQL)
 For duplicate elimination and grouping, null is treated
like any other value, and two nulls are assumed to be
the same (as in SQL)

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.41 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Modification of the Database
 The content of the database may be modified using
the following operations:
 Deletion
 Insertion
 Updating
 All these operations are expressed using the
assignment operator.

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.42 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Deletion
 A delete request is expressed similarly to a query,
except instead of displaying tuples to the user, the
selected tuples are removed from the database.
 Can delete only whole tuples; cannot delete values
on only particular attributes
 A deletion is expressed in relational algebra by:
rr–E
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra
query.

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.43 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Deletion Examples
 Delete all account records in the Perryridge branch.

account  account – branch_name = “Perryridge” (account )

 Delete all loan records with amount in the range of 0 to 50

loan  loan – amount 0and amount  50 (loan)

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.44 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Insertion
 To insert data into a relation, we either:
 specify a tuple to be inserted
 write a query whose result is a set of tuples to be
inserted
 in relational algebra, an insertion is expressed by:
r r  E
where r is a relation and E is a relational algebra
expression.
 The insertion of a single tuple is expressed by letting E
be a constant relation containing one tuple.

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.45 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Insertion Examples
 Insert information in the database specifying that Smith
has $1200 in account A-973 at the Perryridge branch.

account  account  {(“A-973”, “Perryridge”, 1200)}

depositor  depositor  {(“Smith”, “A-973”)}

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.46 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Updating
 A mechanism to change a value in a tuple without
charging all values in the tuple
 Use the generalized projection operator to do this task

r   F ,F ,,F , (r )
1 2 l

 Each Fi is either
 the I th
attribute of r, if the I th
attribute is not updated,
or,
 if the attribute is to be updated Fi is an expression,
involving only constants and the attributes of r, which
gives the new value for the attribute

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.47 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 Update Examples
 Make interest payments by increasing all balances by 5
percent.
account   account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.05 (account)

 Pay all accounts with balances over $10,000 6 percent

interest
and pay all others 5 percent
account   account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.06 ( BAL  10000
(account ))
  account_number, branch_name, balance * 1.05 (BAL  10000
(account))

atabase System Concepts - 5th Edition, Oct 5, 2006 2.48 ©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
 End of Chapter 2

Database System Concepts, 5th Ed.

©Silberschatz, Korth and Sudarshan
See www.db-book.com for conditions on re-use