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METHODOLOGY PART 2
SOURCES OF DATA AND METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

DR. DUFIE AZUMAH

Lecture 8
 METHODOLOGY PART 2

SOURCES OF DATA AND METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

OUTLINE
• 1. Sources of data in research
• 2. Tools used in collecting data
• 3. Data collection procedures
Meaning and types of sources of data

There are difference sources)of information in research and this can be

classified into :
• Primary
• Secondary
• Tertiary
Primary source of information
What is primary source?
A primary source is material most likely to shed true light on the information
the researcher seeks
• Primary sources are original materials on which other research is based.
They are usually the first formal appearance of results in physical, print or
electronic format.
• They present original thinking, report a discovery, or share new
information.
• Primary sources provide first-hand testimony or direct evidence concerning
a topic under investigation. That is these are contemporary accounts of an
event, written by someone who experienced or witnessed the event in
question.
Primary Source of Data contn.
• They are created by witnesses or recorders who experienced the events or
conditions being documented. Often these sources are created at the time
when the events or conditions are occurring.
• These original documents (i.e., they are not about another document or
account) are often diaries, letters, memoirs, journals, speeches, manuscripts,
interviews autobiographies, memoirs, and oral histories recorded later, and
other such unpublished works. They may also include published pieces such
as newspaper or magazine articles (as long as they are written soon after the
fact and not as historical accounts), photographs, audio or video recordings,
research reports in the natural or social sciences, or original literary or
theatrical works.
Some definitions of primary source
• "The definition of a primary source varies depending upon the academic
discipline and the context in which it is used.
• In the humanities, a primary source could be defined as something that was
created either during the time period being studied or afterward by individuals
reflecting on their involvement in the events of that time.
• In the social sciences, the definition of a primary source would be expanded to
include numerical data that has been gathered to analyze relationships between
people, events, and their environment.
• In the natural sciences, a primary source could be defined as a report of original
findings or ideas. These sources often appear in the form of research articles with
sections on methods and results
Primary sources in context

• The nature of a source is determined by the way a researcher makes use

of it. The same item might be considered a primary source in one
investigation and a secondary source in another.
• For example, a speech about the Declaration of Independence that was
delivered by a noted statesman on Ghana’s 50th anniversary would be
secondary source for a scholar studying the document's philosophical
origins.
• But, it would be a primary source for a scholar studying how the
Declaration's meaning has changed for Ghanaian’s over time
Secondary Source/ information
• Secondary sources are less easily defined than primary sources.
• A secondary source is a description of an event based on a primary
source. The original data has been distilled by a person other than the
original witness.
• Generally, they are accounts written after the fact with the benefit of
hindsight. They are interpretations and evaluations of primary sources.
Secondary sources are not evidence, but rather commentary on and
discussion of evidence..
• Secondary source materials, then, interpret, assign value to, conjecture
upon, and draw conclusions about the events reported in primary sources.
These are usually in the form of published works such as journal articles
or books, but may include radio or television documentaries, or
conference proceedings
Some examples of secondary sources
• Examples include:
• Bibliographies (also considered tertiary);
• Biographical works;
• Commentaries, criticisms;
• Dictionaries, Encyclopaedias (also considered tertiary);
• Histories;
• Journal articles (depending on the disciple can be primary);
• Serials (newspaper and newspaper articles, periodicals, magazines) (this distinction varies by discipline);
• Monographs, other than fiction and autobiography;
• Textbooks (also considered tertiary);
• Web site (also considered primary).
Nature and context of secondary source

• The function of these is to interpret primary sources, and so can be

described as at least one step removed from the event or phenomenon
under review.
• However, what some define as a secondary source, others define as a
tertiary source. Context is everything.
• Note: The definition of a secondary source may vary depending upon the
discipline or context
Types of secondary sources
Secondary sources can be grouped into three categories: primary,
secondary and tertiary (ref to literature review)
• •Primary literature sources: The first occurrence of a piece of work,
such as Reports, theses, E-mails- Conference Proceedings, Company
Reports, gov’t Publications.
• Secondary literature sources: Subsequent
publications of primary literature such as books, journals, Serials
(newspapers, periodicals, magazines), Some gov’t publications etc
•Tertiary literature sources: Sources designed to help locate primary and
secondary literature such as index, abstract, and encyclopedia
Tertiary Sources of information

• Definition:
• Tertiary sources consist of information which is a distillation and
collection of primary and secondary sources. These are sources that
compile or digest other sources.
• Some reference materials and textbooks are considered tertiary sources
when their chief purpose is to list, summarize or simply repackage ideas
or other information.
Tertiary Sources of information

• Tertiary materials include: Almanacs; Bibliographies (also considered

secondary);Chronologies; Dictionaries and Encyclopaedias (also
considered secondary);Directories; Fact books; Guidebooks; Indexes,
abstracts, bibliographies used to locate primary and secondary sources;
Manuals; Textbooks (also be secondary).
• Tertiary sources include , Wikipedia and similar user-contributed online
'encyclopedias' and reference material, as well as various digests
(including the Reader's Digest and similar) and schoolbooks
General Classifications of Selected Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Sources

Primary Secondary Tertiary

Autobiographies Biographies Abstracts

correspondence prior books & papers on bibliographies
descriptions of a topic chronologies
travel literary criticism & classifications
diaries interpretation dictionaries &
literary works history & historical encyclopedias
interviews criticism directories
personal political analyses guidebooks and
narratives reviews of law and manuals
paintings and legislation population registers
photographs essays on morals and statistics
ethics
analyses of social
policy
study and teaching
material
METHODS/TECHNIQUES OF DATA
COLLECTION
• QUESTIONNAIRES
• INTERVIEW
• OBSERVATION
 Tools/ technique for collecting data –
1. INTERVIEW

It is a face –to- face, interpersonal role situation in which an interviewer

asks respondents questions designed to elicit answers pertinent to the
research questions. Interview is a ‘conversation with a difference.
Types of Interview
The questions, their wording and their sequence define the structure of
the interviews. There are two (2) main types:
• Structured
• Unstructured― with their different variations or adaptations
• In-depth Interview
• The personal face-to-face Interview
• Focused group Interview
• Focus group discussion
• Panel discussion
• Telephone - interview
The In-depth Interview
• It more often refers to both semi-structured and
unstructured interviewing possessing the characteristics of both.
• However, with this form of interview, a relatively few
questions considered to have great significance to the
issue/problem are discussed both intensively and
extensively.
• Discussion is more detailed to collect as much
information as possible.
The Personal Face-to-Face Interview
• It is an interview in which the interviewer has a face-
to-face personal contact with the interviewees In much
more natural setting.
• There is an interpersonal role where participants
observe each other’s reactions and expression in
relation to the interviewing context.
Advantages of Personal Interview

(1) Flexibility in the questioning process;

(2) Control of the interview situation.
(3) High response rate
(4) Collection of supplementary information:

Disadvantages
(1) Higher Cost
(2) Interview bias
Focused Interview
• This term was devised by Merton et al (1956) to refer
to an interview using predominantly open questions to
ask interviewee questions about a specific situation or
event that is relevant to them and of interest to the
research. It is a non-scheduled interview.
•This form of interview has four (4) distinct characteristics;
(1) It takes place with respondents known to have been
involved in a particular experience.
Focused Interview Cont.
(2) It refers to a situation that have been analysed prior
to the interview.
(3) It proceeds on the basis of an interview guide
specifying topics related to the research hypothesis.
(4) It is focused on subject’s experiences regarding the
situation under study.
Focused Interview Cont.
NB: Although the encounter between the respondents
and interviewer is structured and the major aspects of
the study are explained, respondents are given
considerable liberty in expressing their definition of a
situation that is presented.
• The focused interview permits the researcher to
obtain details of personal reactions, specific emotions
etc.
Focused Group Discussion (FGD)
• It is a group interview in which there are several
participants ( in addition to the moderator/facilitator).
•There is an emphasis on a specific theme or topic that
is explored in-depth. The accent is upon interaction
within the group.
• The moderator is expected to guide each session but
not to be too intrusive.
Focus Group Discussion Cont.
• The focused group contains two significant elements
of two methods;
(1) The group interview in which several people discuss
a number of topics and,
(2) Focused interview, in which interviewees are
selected because they are known to have been
involved in a particular situation (Merton et al, 1956:3)
and are asked about their involvement.
AIM
• The focus group practitioner is interested in the ways
in which individuals as member of a group discuss a
certain issue rather than simply as individuals.
• The researcher in interested in such things as how
people respond to each others view and build up a
view out of the interaction that takes place within the
group.
Focus Group Cont.
• This method is commonly used by market
researchers and communication specialists and has been in use among most
African researchers.
•Due to its characteristics, the FGD violates the ethical
principles of privacy and confidentiality which is
usually associated with research.
Advantages of FGD
(1) Provide a great deal of insight into issues discussed
with the group.
(2) Allows for expressions of views, opinions and
counter-opinions on attitudes and beliefs.
(3) Provides useful information on which to base action
especially testing of products, packages, development
of new techniques.
Advantages of Focus Group Discussion

(1) Provide a great deal of insight into issues discussed with the group.
(2) Allows for expressions of views, opinions and counter-opinions on
attitudes and beliefs.
(3) Provides useful information on which to base action especially testing
of products, packages, development of new techniques.
(4) Useful for explaining and understanding behavioural issues, opinions
and attitudes and for identifying groups likely to favour or oppose proposed
projects.
(5) In explorative fieldwork (visit), it provides clues for the type of
information to collect thereby facilitating the design of questionnaire.
 TELEPHONE INTERVIEW
• The telephone interview can be characterised as a
semi-personal form of interviewing.
With this method, the interviewer calls a respondent
on the telephone on a pre-arranged date and time and
ask questions.
• Telephone surveys have gained general acceptance as
a legitimate method of data collection in Social
Sciences.
Telephone Interview Cont.
• The main rationale for employing this method today
is that investigators are able to reach more than 9/10
of the population.
• In developing countries, financial pressures have
made the adoption of this technique more attractive-
the cost of making personal interview.
• In comparison telephone survey is convenient and it
produces a very significant cost saving results.
Telephone Interview Cont.
• Results rates are also high in telephone interview.
• Technological advancement has also made it much
easier.
Advantages
(1) Moderate cost
(2) Speed-telephone interview can reach a larger
number of respondents in a short time. Interviews can
be coded directly into computer which can later be
compiled.
(3) High response rate-Provide access to people who
might be unlikely to reply to a mail question or refuse
a personal interview.
Advantages Cont.
(4) Quality―high quality data can be collected when
interviews are centrally located and supervisor can
ensure that question are being answered.
Disadvantages
(1) Reluctance to discuss sensitive topic. Respondents
may be hesitant to discuss some issues over the phone.
(2) The “broken off” interview: Respondent can
terminate the interview before it is completed
(3) Less informed: The interviewer cannot provide
supplemental information about the respondent.
Access : Entry into the Field and Introductory statement/ Protocols
There are several issues to include in an introductory statement to a prospective
interviewee. The following list comprises the principal considerations.
I. Self /Personal introduction: Make clear the identity of the person who is
contacting the respondent.
II. Cover/Introductory letter from institution :- Identify the auspices under
which the research is being conducted-for example, a university, a market
research agency.
III. Sponsorship / scholarship- Mention any research finder/ , or, if you are a
student doing an undergraduate or postgraduate dissertation or doing research
for thesis, make this clear.
IV. Purpose / Reason:- Indicate what the research is about in broad terms and why
it is important, and give an indication of the kind of information to be collected.
39
Access : Entry into the Field and Introductory statement/ Protocols
v.Indicate why the respondent has been selected- e.g. selected
by a random process.
vi. Provides reassurance about the confidentiality of any
information provided.
vii. Make it clear that participation is voluntary.

40
Introductory statement/ Protocols contn,
vii. Reassure the respondent that he or she will not be identified or be
identifiable in any way. This can usually be achieved by pointing out that
data are anonymized when they are entered into the computer and that
analysis will be conducted at an aggregate level.
viii. Provide the respondent with the opportunity to ask any questions – e.g.
provide a contact telephone number if the introduction is in the form of a
written statement or if in person simply ask if the respondent has any
questions.

• These suggestions are also relevant to the covering letter that accompanies
mail questionnaires, except that researchers using this method need to
remember to include a stamped-addressed envelope.
41
THE INTERVIEW SITUATION
(1) Role of the Interviewer: Direct the pace and rhythm
of the interview. Move and or repeat questions deem
necessary. The interviewer must keep the interview as
a free conversation between two parties.
(2) The respondent is to be put at ease. Make the
respondents feel comfortable. Also be patient to go
Through the whole conversation. Communication
should be mutual; create confident atmosphere for the
exchange of information; and interruptions should be less.
The interview Situation
(3) The manner of speech and behaviour of the interviewer.
(4) The degree to which the interviewer himself understands the
questions is important and his command over, and conversance with the
content of the questions determines to a large extent, the confidence that
respondents would have in him.
(5) The interview process requires skills, tolerance, tact, patience
and training especially in human relations to work under difficult and
provocative conditions.
(6) Make time and have sufficient resources
Three Factors Motivating Respondents to
Cooperate in an interview situation
(1) The respondents must feel that their interaction with the interviewer will
be pleasant and satisfying . Make respondents feel that they will be
understanding and easy to talk to.
(2) The respondents need to see the study as being
worthwhile. The study will not only benefit them
personally but also it deals with a significant issue and
that their cooperation is important.
Three Factors Motivating Respondents to
Cooperate in an interview situation
(3) Barriers to the interview in the respondent’s mind
need to be overcome.
Correct misconceptions.-Respondents may be suspicious of the
interviews explain in a friendly manner, the purpose of the study,
method of selecting respondents, and the
confidential nature of the interview.
Sources of Variability in the interviewing process

Variability can occur in either of the two ways:

a. Intra-interviewer variability- this is whereby an interviewer is not
consistent in the way he or she ask the questions and/or records the
answers
b. Inter-interviewer variability- (when there are more than one
interviewer) , this is whereby interviewers are not consistent with each
other in the ways they ask question and/ or record answers.
 Some Predominant sources of error in survey research

The following are some principal sources of error:

1. A poorly worded question
2. The way the question is asked by the interviewer;
3. Misunderstanding on the part of the interviewee;
4. Memory problems on the part of the interviewee;
5. The way the information is recorded by the interviewer; and
6. The way the information is processed, either when answers are coded
or when the data are entered into the computer.
Construction of Questions
(1) Do not cramp the presentation:
(2) Clear Presentation:
(3) Questions must follow a standardized format to ensure that recording
of response are identical.
2. Tool/ technique for collecting data :
THE QUESTIONNAIRE
• A questionnaire is a form or a document
containing a number of questions on a
particular theme, problem, issue or opinion to
be investigated.
•Questionnaire that are completed by
respondents themselves are one of the main
instruments for gathering data using a social
survey design.
CONT.
• This is known as the self-completion
questionnaire/ also referred to as the self-
administered/ mail/postal questionnaire.

ADVANTAGES
(1) Low cost/Economical
(2) Reduction in biasing error: Reduces biasing
error as a result of the absence of the interviewer.
ADVANTAGES OF QUESTIONNAIRES

(1) Low cost/Economical

(2) Reduction in biasing error:
(3) Greater Anonymity-
(4) Considered answers and consultations.
(5) Accessibility-.
(6) Cheaper to administer.
(7) Quick to administer.
DISADVANTAGES

(1) Requires simple question

(2) No opportunity for probing
(3) No control over who fills out the questionnaire or the respondent
environment.
(4) Low response rate.
 Factors affecting the response rate of mail questionnaires

(1) Sponsorship
(2) Inducement to Respond
(3) Questionnaire Format and Methods of Mailing
(4) Cover Letter
(5) Type of Mailing
(6) Timing of Mailing
(7) Selection of Respondents
(8) Total Design Method (TDM)
Design/Construction of Questionnaire
Designing the Self-Completion Questionnaire

(1) Do not cramp the presentation:- Due to the

problem of low response that characterises self-
completion questionnaire, it is sometimes preferable to
make the instrument appear as short as possible in
order for it to less likely to deter prospective
respondents.
Designing the Self-Completion Questionnaire

(2) Clear Presentation:- Ensure that the layout of the

questionnaire is easy on the example that Dillman
emphasised, and that it facilitates the answering of all
questions that are relevant to the respondents.
The use of variety of print style ( eg. Different from
previous styles).
(3) Questions must follow a standardised format to
ensure that recording of response are identical.
Designing the Self-Completion Questionnaire

Eg. Most questions in self-administered questionnaire

are likely to be the closed kind. There is the need to
consider how to arrange the fixed answers-whether
vertically or horizontally.
The nature of the answers will dictate a vertical
arrangement because of their sheer length.
Closed Question with Vertical Format
• What do you think about the President’s performance in his job since he
took office?
(Pleas tick the appropriate response)
Very good 5
Good 4
Fair 3
Poor 2
Very poor 1
Closed Question with Horizontal Format
• What do you think about the president’s
performance in his job since he took office?
Very good―Good―Fair―Poor

NB: Most writers prefer the use of vertical format

whenever possible because in case where arrangement
is feasible, confusion can arise when a horizontal one is
employed.
Vertical format clearly distinguishes question from answers.
Closed Question with Horizontal Format
• Also it is easier to code especially when pre-codes
appear on the questionnaire.
• Potential problems can be obviated through the
judicious use of spacing and print variations.

Characteristics and Qualities in Questionnaire Design

(1) Simplicity and brevity of the document
(2) Clarity of concepts and terms used.
(3) Clarity and simplicity of terminology and phraseology
Guidelines to Constructing a Good Question
(1) Decide and be clear of what data/information when
collected and analysed would yield the answer sought
by the investigator.
(2) Examine and consider the availability and access to
the required data within the time and resources of the
proposed survey.
(3) Questions must be practicable and directly relevant
to the central objects of the investigation.
Guidelines to Constructing a Good Question
(4) Planning, reading, discussion etc and explanatory
work all likely to help or give useful clue to the
specification of question to be included in
questionnaire as well as objective identification of
variable to be measured.
(5) Clarity in scope and plan of the investigation is best
achieved by reducing the objective of investigation into
a set of specific question well-defined, sequentially
arranged in a logical order to constitute the questionnaire.
Characteristics/Qualities of Questions and
Questionnaire
• The construction of a questionnaire involves three(3) distinct categories of
people( the survey organiser,
interviewer and respondents) who although operating
differently have a common objective of an investigation
•Therefore, to meet the needs of these groups, a
questionnaire must satisfy one of the following basic
characteristics:
(1) Practicality and Relevance- No use asking questions
respondents have no idea of.
Characteristics/Qualities of Questions and
Questionnaire
(-) Questions must be geared towards the respondents
Personal experience rather than in general terms.
(2) Comparability- One of the purpose of question
is to enable the researcher compare the information
provided by respondents to some related studies.
Questions should be identical, in relation to terms,
concepts, definitions ,and qualitative-so that inference
could be made.
Characteristics/Qualities of Questions and
Questionnaire
(3) Sequence/Uniformity:- Questionnaire is an instrument of collecting specific
information from respondents in a
standardised form.
•It must be arranged in a specific order so as to ensure
the necessary condition to minimise data collection
errors.
• Questions must not only be logically related to the
main problem being investigated but must also be fit
together with other question before and after in order
to reflect the entire questionnaire.
Characteristics/Qualities of Questions and
Questionnaire
• Question put in a haphazard manner, confuse
respondents who may consequently lose interest in
questions. The resultant effect is that respondents may
give unintelligible, distorted, unintended, incorrect
information.
(4) Language:- Questionnaire serves the role of an
impersonal link or medium between the researcher and
respondents.
Language used in phrasing questions must be clearly
understood.
Characteristics/Qualities of Questions and
Questionnaire
• Questions should be clear, simple-as clear understanding of questions
facilitate good and
appropriate responses.
(5) Phraseology/Question wording:- How the question
is worded is very key. It should be clearly stated in
simple words which are likely to be familiar to all
prospective respondents.
(6) Use of Local Words.
(7) Communication.
TYPES OF QUESTIONS
• Questions in a questionnaire may take a number of
different forms depending upon;
(a) The nature of the phenomenon investigated and
the aspects of the phenomena to which the question is
addressed.
(b) The category of respondents
(c) The mode of administration of questionnaire-either
Self-administered or structured/personal interview.
Main Types of Questions
(a) Lengthy, rambling question
(b) Leading question/Implied/Supply answer
(c) Complex/difficult question
(d) Opinion and attitude
(e) Open-ended
(f) Close –ended
(g) Filter question
Main Types of Questions
(h) Screening question
(i) General to Specific/Funnel Sequence type question
(j) Specific to General or Inverted funnel Sequence type
question
(k) Projective question
(l) Check or Control question.
Lengthy Questions
• Lengthy questions may bore both the interviewer
and the respondent and may as well affect the
response rate and quality of the data.
• Therefore questionnaires should not be longer than
it is necessary for the purpose intended. All questions
not directly relevant to the objectives of the
investigation must be excluded design of
questionnaires. Only questions which have direct
bearing on a problem itself must be considered.
Leading Questions
• Leading Question:- Questions aim at finding out
what the respondents know or feel about a given
situation or subject.
• Questions should not supply or give away answers in
themselves.
• Don’t use question that don’t allow respondents to
think through e.g.. Yes or No
• Putting ideas into the mind of respondents.
Subjective words such as good, fair do not lend themselves
to quantitative measurement.
Complex/Difficult Question
• Questions which allow the respondents to go
through several steps of reasoning before answering
are undesirable.
Opinion/Attitude
• Questionnaires are designed to ascertain fact, test
knowledge of information or discover beliefs.
• Opinions differ between any two people-with question that seeks answers
to degrees of intensity of feeling or convictions.
• It is necessary to include related questions intended to find out the extent
to which these attitude have been crystallized with reference to the subject
of
investigation.
Open-ended Questions
• It’s difficult assessing exactly what respondents feel
about a problem, an issue etc. It offers respondents an
opportunity to express him/herself on an issue and
give a basis for his answer.
• It’s designed to permit free response.
• It makes room for follow-up questions or probes.
Closed-ended Question
• Provides a number of possible answers for the
respondents to select from. It has a high rate of
response.
Filter Question
• Answers are not required of or applicable to all
units under investigation.
• Questions should be structured as to direct such
question to the targeted respondents-the same time
allowing other respondents to skip to the next
question.
Screening Question
• It identifies respondents answering a general
section of question to continue with the more specific
or more focused section.
Funnel Questions/General to Specific
• It sequentially explores a respondent’s general views
or ideas before getting him to specific aspects subject.
• This type of question is useful when respondents are
likely to hesitate in identifying themselves, for one
reason or another with specific views.
Specific to General/Inverted Funnel Sequence
• It consists of a battery of questions beginning with a
specific and precise question followed sequentially by
related questions, leading a respondent to generalise
about a situation.
OBSERVATION- DEFINITION
• Observation according to Bernard “is the foundation of (social) cultural
anthropology, which involves getting close to the people and making them
feel comfortable enough with your presence so that you can observe and
record information about their lives” (Bernard, 1995: 136). All social
science research begins and ends with empirical observation.
OBSERVATION CONT.
•Observation provides the Researcher the opportunity to study people in
their natural setting.
• In studying social and cultural aspects in relation to
behaviour patterns such as attitudes and perceptions,
interviews and questionnaire responses have become
notorious for the discrepancies between what they
actually do (actions) as saying is one thin; doing is
another (Robson, 2002:310).
OBSERVATION CONT.
• Observation ranges in versatility. It may take place in
a natural setting or in a laboratory.

FORMS OF OBSERVATION
There are two (2) different forms of observation
(i) Structured/Systematic Observation
(ii) Unstructured Observation
STRUCTURE/SYSTEMATIC
OBSERVATION
• It is a technique in which the researcher employs
explicitly formulated rules for the observation and
recording of behaviour.
UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATION
• It does not entail the use of observation schedule for
recording of behaviour. Instead the aim is to record in
as much detail as possible the behaviour of
participants with the aim of developing a narrative
account of that behaviour.
SIMPLE OBSERVATION AND
CONTRIVED OBSERVATION
• The observer has no influence over the situation
being observed. In this form of observation, the
observer is unobtrusive and is not observed by those
being observed (covert).
The observer actively alters the situation to observe the
effects of an intervention.
NON-PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
• The term is used to describe a situation in which the
observer observes but does not participate in what is
going in the social setting.
• Structured observers are usually non-participant in
that they are in the they are in the social setting being
observed but rarely participate in what is happening.
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
• This is one of the best known methods in social
science. It is primarily associated with qualitative
research.
• It is a process whereby the investigator attempts to
attain some kind of membership in or close
attachment to the group that he or she wish to study.
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION CONT.
• Participant Observation entails a relatively prolonged
immersion of the observer in the social setting in which
he/she seeks to observe the behaviour of members of
that setting (group, organisation, community etc) and
to elicit the meaning they attribute to their
environment and behaviour.
• The participant observer attempts to adopt the
perspectives of the people in the situation being
observed.
PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION CONT.
• The participant observer’s role is that of “conscious
and systematic sharing, in so far as circumstances
permit; in the life activities, and on occasion in the
interests and effects of a group of persons” (Florence,
Kluckhon, 1940:33).
• Direct participation in the activities of the observed
often entails learning the language, habits, work,
patterns, leisure activities and other aspects of their
daily lives as in ethnographic research.
Types of Participant Observation
• There are two types of participant observation;

(1) Complete Participation

(2) Participant as Observer
Complete Participant Role
• In a Complete participant role, the observer is wholly
concealed; the observer becomes a participating
member of the group of interest without revealing
his/her identity or research goals to the group ( covert
Participation).
• The complete participant interacts with the observed
“ as naturally as possible in whatever areas of their
living interest him and are accessible to him ( Raymond
Gold, 1958:219).
Complete Participant Role Cont.
• Several researchers have used this method in
research . Festinger and others used it to study a group of people who
predicted the destruction
of the world (1956 –Title- When prophecy fails).
Humphrey also used it to study homosexuals.
• This method is usually used in areas or groups (cults)
where gaining access or entry is relatively difficult.
ADVANTAGES
• The use of Complete Participation is therefore
justified on the grounds that it makes possible the
study of inaccessible groups that do not reveal to
outsiders certain aspects of their lives eg. The Lodge
or cult groups.
Disadvantage/Critique of Complete
Participation
• This method is criticised on methodological and
logical grounds.

A// Methodological Problems: The complete

participant role poses several methodological problems
• First, observers may become so self –conscious about
revealing their true selves that they are handicapped
when attempting to perform convincingly in the
pretended role.
Methodological Problems Cont.
• Or they may “go native”, that is , incorporate the
pretended role into their self-conception and lose the
research perspective (Gold, 1958:220).
• Secondly, it is difficult to researcher to decide what
to observe because he/she cannot evoke responses or
behaviour and must be careful not to ask questions
that might raise the suspicion of the persons observed.
Methodological Problems Cont.
• Thirdly, recording observations or taking notes is
impossible on the spot, these have to be postponed
until the observer is alone.
However, time lags in recording observation
introduces selective bias and distortions through
memory.
Participant as Observer
• Observer becomes participant in the activities of the
group by revealing his/her identity and goals of the
research.
The researcher makes long-term commitment to
become an active member of the group and attempt
to establish close relationship with members who
serve as both informant and respondents.
Participant as Observer Cont.
• With this method the fieldworker gains a deeper
appreciation of the group and its way of life, and may
also gain different levels of insight by actually
participating rather than only observing.
ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION
(1) It’s Direct: It enables the researcher to study the
behaviour of people as it occurs. The researcher need
not ask the people about their own behaviour
and actions but simply have to watch as they act and
speak.
• This in turn enable the investigator to collect data
firsthand, thereby preventing contamination of the
facts standing between him/her and the objective
the research.
ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION
(2) It describes the observed phenomenon as they
occur in their natural settings. Other data collection
methods introduce element of artificiality into the
research environment .
E.g. Interview is a form of face-to-face interaction,
hence it is subject to unique problem because of the
lack of consensus surrounding the role of the
researcher.
ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION
(3) It enables the researcher to study individuals who
are unable to give verbal reports or to articulates
themselves meaningfully.
E.g. Children with verbal disability-they have no
language for discussing sociable encounters, no
vocabulary for describing parties.
ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION
(4) Researchers can use observational methods when
people are unwilling to express themselves verbally.
observation compared to verbal report, demand less
active involvement on the part of those being
studied.
(5) It can be used to validate verbal reports by
comparing them with actual behaviours. What people
say is one thing, and what they do is another.
ADVANTAGES OF OBSERVATION
(6) Based on the relationship established between the
researcher and his subjects, the researcher can
observe the impact on the environment facilitating
analysis of contextual background of behaviour- as the
study takes place in the natural setting.
Advantages of Observation

(1) It’s Direct: It enables the researcher to study the behaviour of people as it
occurs.
(2) It describes the observed phenomenon as they occur in their natural settings.
(3) It enables the researcher to study individuals who are unable to give verbal
reports or articulates themselves meaningfully.
(4) Observation compared to verbal report, demand less active involvement on
the part of those being studied.
(5) Based on the relationship established between the researcher and his
subjects, the researcher can observe the impact on the environment facilitating
analysis of contextual background of behavior.
Self Assessment

1. Discuss forms and importance of observation as data collection tool in

research
2. With examples distinguish between the following;
(i) Participant observation and Non-participant observation
(ii) Structured and unstructured interview
(iii) Open-ended and closed-ended questions
Review Question:

• Distinguish between Primary and Secondary Sources

• Discussion Question:
Explain the difference between primary and secondary source of data along
with the relative advantages and disadvantages of each?
Assignment

1. Why do you think observation is a useful method for collecting information

2. State four objectives of a study aimed at finding out the problems a youth in
development worker faces in his/her work in one of the following areas:
i. Drug abuse among the youth
ii. Domestic violence
iii. Sanitation problems in your locality

From the objectives, design a 12-item questionnaire. Your questions should have
both open-ended and closed-ended questions.