Electricity

What is
electricity?
In unit 2 we will learn about
the physics of electricity and
electronics.
This includes circuits, Ohm’s

law, resistance, electrical
energy and power,
electromagnetism and
electronic components.
Rutherford Bohr model
Thomson’s Plum pudding model
What is inside an atom?

Quantum model of the nucleus
Charge cloud model Rutherford model
Key words: electrons, conductors,
insulators, charge, current
By the end of this lesson you will be able

to:
State that electrons are free to move in a

conductor
Describe the electrical current in terms of
movement of charges around a circuit
Distinguish between conductors and insulators
and give examples of each.
Carry out calculations involving Q = It
The atom
An atom is a fundamental unit of matter
made up of
protons (with a positive charge)

neutrons (neutral – no charge)
electrons (with a negative charge)
What is electricity?
Everything is made of atoms which contain
POSITIVE particles called PROTONS and
NEGATIVE particles called ELECTRONS.
Electron (-) Proton (+)
Neutron
An atom will usually have the same number of
positives and negatives
This makes the atom NEUTRAL.
Electron (-) Proton (+)
Neutron
Electrical Charge
Electric charge is given the symbol
Q
Electrons are the charge carriers
that flow in an electrical circuit –
from the negative to positive
terminals.
Electrical Charge
Charge is measured in
Coulombs
which is given the symbol
C
Electrical Charge
The charge on a proton is
1.6 x 10 C -19
which is the same size as the charge on an

electron.
Electrons have a negative charge
(Q) measured in coulombs (C).
Electrons move round a circuit from

negative to positive (remember like
charges repel, opposites attract)
giving rise to an electric current.
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Conductors & Insulators
What makes something a good conductor?
Good conductors allow electrons to move

through them easily. Insulators do not
allow electrons to move easily.
So electricity is…
movement of charge round a

circuit.
We call this electric current.

Charge, Current & Time
Electric current is given the symbol
I
Electric current is the movement of
negative charges (electrons) in a
circuit
Current is the amount of charge flowing
per second and is given the unit
Amps (A)
If
so acurrent
currentis of
charge
1 A isflowing per second
1 C of charge then
transferred
in 1 s.
Q
I Charge transferred
in coulombs (C)
t
Current in Amps (A)
time in seconds (s)
This can be rearranged as
Q  It
or
Q
t
I
Key words: series, current, ammeter, voltmeter,
battery, resistor, variable resistor, fuse, switch, lamp,
voltage

to:
Draw circuit diagrams to show the correct positions of

an ammeter in a series circuit.
Draw and identify the circuit symbols for an
ammeter, voltmeter, battery, resistor, variable
resistor, fuse, switch and lamp.
State that in a series circuit, the current is the same at
all positions.
Different types of circuit
There are different ways in which you can
connect cells and components (such as
lamps) to create a circuit:
series
parallel
a mixture of both
Series Circuit
A series circuit has only one electrical

path.
You can trace from one side of the

battery to the other, through each
component, without lifting your finger
from the page.
Different types of circuit
There are different ways in which you can
connect cells and components (such as
lamps) to create a circuit:
series
parallel
a mixture of both
Series Circuit
A series circuit has only one electrical

path.
You can trace from one side of the

battery to the other, through each
component, without lifting your finger
from the page.
Physics Animations – Series Circuits

Name that component
Resistor Fuse Battery Ammeter
On the back of p2 carefully draw each symbol and

label – in pencil!
Voltmeter Switch Lamp

Cell
Variable resistor
Build a series circuit
On the worksheet you will find four
building circuit activities.
Follow the instructions carefully!

Answer each question as you go.
Make careful observations.
Lesson 2 build a series circuit.pub

Build a series circuit
Build a series circuit which contains a
6V battery pack, three 3.5 V lamps in
lamp holders, and a meter used for
measuring current.
What is the meter called?
Where is it positioned in the circuit?

Activity 1
Activity 2
Bulbs are much dimmer!

Activity 3 - Change your circuit…
Move your ammeter to different positions
in the series circuit.
Make a note of the positions each time,

and of the current at each position.
What can you say about the current in a

series circuit?
Successful Circuit Diagrams
On your worksheet you have drawn a circuit
diagram.
To be successful at circuit diagrams:

• use a ruler and pencil
• draw components carefully
• draw wires as straight lines (with corners as
• right angles!)
• make sure all components are correctly draw
• and joined in the circuit.
Your circuit diagram…
should look like this:
Notice in this circuit, current is the same at all points
Notice in this circuit, current is the same at all points
Series Circuits and Current
We are measuring the current I in a series circuit.
What have we observed?

We find that the current is the same at
all points.
How can this be written mathematically?

I1 = I2 = I3 = I4 and so on
Virtual Int 2 Physics – Electricity & Electronics – Circuits – Series Circuits

Think…
How could you make use of a series circuit
to investigate which materials are
conductors and which materials are
insulators?
Which components would you need?

What would you observe?
…and learn
components and names
formulae and symbols
what is a series circuit?
current in series circuit
drawing a series circuit diagram
What have I learned?
Key words: series, parallel, ammeter, current,

to:
Draw circuit diagrams to show the correct positions of an

ammeter in a parallel circuit.
Draw and identify the circuit symbols for an ammeter, and
lamp.
State that in a series circuit, the current is the same at
all positions.
State that in a parallel circuit, the sum of the current in
the branches adds up to the current drawn from the
supply.
Quick Quiz
What is a series circuit?
What is the symbol for current?
What are the units of current?
What is the relationship between current and
time?
What do we know about the current in a series
circuit?
How do we measure current?
Draw the symbol for this.
Describe how to measure current in a series
circuit.
Build another circuit
Build a series circuit which includes a 6V

battery, a 6V lamp and an ammeter.
Draw the circuit diagram for your circuit:

We will now take one of your series
circuits, and “add it” to someone else’s.
Another ammeter has been added.
What do you notice about the readings on

the ammeter?
We will now “add” another series circuit.
What do you notice about the readings on

the ammeter?
What sort of circuit is this?
We have constructed a parallel circuit.
What does the circuit diagram look like?
Try drawing it on Crocodile Physics.

Draw the circuit diagram below
Parallel Circuit
We have constructed a parallel circuit.
This is a circuit with different branches.
When it reaches a junction, the current

can divide and take different branches.
Parallel Circuits and Current
We are measuring the current I in a
parallel circuit.
What have we observed?

We find that the current in each of the
branches adds up to the total current.
How can this be written mathematically?
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 and so on
Electric Circuits
How many ways can you make
two light bulbs work?
A SIMPLE CIRCUIT
SWITCH
CELL
C lo
se
the
swi
tch
, wh
at
h app
e ns?
LIGHT BULB
A SIMPLE CIRCUIT
2A 2A 2A
2A 2A 2A
A Series Circuit
1A 1A 1A
Wh
at h
app
e ns n
ow?
1A 1A
1A 1A
A Parallel
Circuit W
ha
th
ap
pe
n sn
ow
?
A Parallel
2A 2A
Circuit
4A 2A 4A 4A
2A 2A
4A 4A 4A
What have you learned today?
Key words: voltage, potential difference,
voltmeter, series, parallel

to:
Draw and identify the circuit symbols for a

voltmeter, battery, and lamp
State that the voltage of a supply is a measure
of the energy given to the charges in a circuit.
Draw circuit diagrams to show the correct positions of a
voltmeter in a circuit.
State that the sum of potential differences across the
components in series is equal to the voltage of the
supply.
State that the potential difference across components
in parallel is the same for each component.
What is a voltage?
What is a volt?
Discussion
Demonstration
Voltage in series and parallel
What is the energy change which
takes place in a battery?
Chemical to Electrical
When a battery is in a circuit…
The electrical energy is carried by the
electrons that move round the circuit.
It is converted into others forms of

energy.
If there is a bulb in the circuit, it is
converted from
to
http://www.members.shaw.ca/len92/current_animation.gif
The amount of electrical energy the
electrons have at any point in a circuit is
known as their “potential”.
As they move the electrons transfer energy

into other forms.
This means at any two points the electron has

different amounts of energy.
Electrons start with (for example) 6J of energy. They have “potential”.
As they pass through

the bulb, some of the
energy is converted
to light.
Electrons which have

passed through the
bulb have less
energy. Or less
“potential”.
There is a “potential” difference

in the circuit
What has “potential difference”
got to do with voltage?
It is the same thing!
The potential difference (p.d.), or voltage,

of a battery is a measure of the electrical
energy given to one coulomb of charge
passing through the battery.
Potential Difference or Voltage (V)
A 9 V battery will give how much energy

to each coulomb of charge passing
through the battery?
9J
A 1.5 V battery will give how much energy

to each coulomb of charge passing
through the battery?
1.5 J
A battery with a p.d. of 6V will give how

much energy to each coulomb of charge
passing through the battery?
6J
Voltage or p.d.
Voltage (or p.d.) is measured in
volts
and is given the symbol
V
Summary of Units
Quantity Symbol Units Symbol
charge Q coulombs C
time t seconds s
current I amperes A
voltage V volts V
How can we measure voltage?
Voltage (or p.d.) can be measured using a
voltmeter.
V
An ammeter is connected in the circuit

but a voltmeter must be connected across
the component.
You can’t measure voltage…
in a circuit
through a circuit
through a component
flowing
Key words: electrical resistance, voltage,
current, Ohm’s law, ohms, resistor,
variable power supply
By the end of this lesson you will be able to:

State that V/I for a resistor remains
approximately constant for different currents.
State that an increase in resistance of a circuit
leads to a decrease in the current in that
circuit.
draw the symbol or a variable power supply and
resistor.
Key words: electrical resistance, voltage,
current, Ohm’s law, ohms, resistor,
variable power supply
By the end of this lesson you will have

practised:
building a series circuit
using an ammeter and a voltmeter to find
current and voltage.
graphing results
Resistors
The symbol for a resistor is

Resistors
Resistors oppose (or resist) the

flow of electric current. They have a
property called resistance (R) which
is measured in ohms (Ω).

What is the relationship between
current and voltage in a resistor?
Current is measured using an ammeter.
Voltage is measured using a voltmeter.
Investigation: relationship between

current and voltage in a resistor.
Relationship between current and
voltage in a resistor
I / Amps
Straight line through

the origin tells us that
current is
directly proportional to
voltage
The ratio V/I is constant

and is equal to resistance
p.d. / in the circuit.
Volts
I-V graph for a filament lamp
I-V graph for Thermistors
I-V graph for Semi
conductors
V
is approximately constant
I
The constant is resistance R
V
R
I
V
R Ohm’s Law
I
V  IR
Resistors
cell
What do you expect
to happen to the current
A if you increase the value
of the resistor in the
circuit shown?
lamp
resistor Demonstration
Calculate
For a voltage of 12V, calculate the
current for a resistant of
(i) 1 Ω
(ii) 2 Ω
(iii)4 Ω
(iv)24 Ω
(v) 1 k Ω
What can you say about current and
resistance for a fixed voltage? Complete
the sentences.
As resistance increases, the current
As resistance decreases, the current

Varying Resistance
The opposition to current or resistance
of a material (measured in Ω) depends
on several things.
Think and discuss what some of these

might be.
Varying Resistance
The opposition to current or resistance of
a material (measured in Ω) depends on
- type of material (the better the conductor,
the lower the resistance)
- length of material (the longer the material,
the higher the resistance)
- thickness of material (the thinner the
material, the higher the resistance)
- temperature of material (the higher the
temperature, the higher the resistance)
Varying Resistance
The relationship between length of the
material and resistance allows us to make
a
variable resistor (or rheostat).
Variable Resistor
A B
Incoming
current
Outgoing
current
Demonstration
Variable Resistors
In the above diagram, if the
slider is moved in the direction
A→B the resistance will
increase because the length of
wire through which the current
passes increases.
Uses of Variable Resistors?
Variable resistors can be used
• as volume or brightness controls on

televisions
• volume control on MP3 players
• light dimmer switches.
Key words: resistance, series, parallel,
ohms, ohmmeter
to:
State the relationships between total
resistance and individual resistances in
series and parallel circuits
Carry out calculations involving the
relationships between resistors in series
and in parallel
Key words: resistance, series, parallel,
ohms, ohmmeter
By the end of this lesson you will have

practised:
building a series circuit
building a parallel circuit
drawing circuit diagrams
using an ohmmeter to measure resistance
in a circuit
Variation of Resistance and
Current for a Lamp Filament
Look at the circuit diagram below:
Handout
Name each of the components
Is this a series or parallel circuit?
As the voltage across the lamp increases, what do

you expect to happen to the current?
Sketch a graph of your prediction of the

relationship between current and voltage.
In the resistor, current and voltage are
directly proportional.
But in a filament lamp, heat is generated.

We know that resistance increases as
temperature increases. So we see that as
voltage increases, temperature increases,
resistance increases and current
increases – but more slowly than we might
predict.
Measuring Resistance
We can find the resistance of a
component by measuring
voltage across the component using

a voltmeter
current through the component using

an ammeter
Measuring Resistance
or we can measure it directly using an
ohmmeter
Ω
Demonstration & experiment
Series and Parallel Circuits
Voltage, Current and Resistance
Vs
- +
I1 I3
V1 V2 V3
R1 R2 R3
I2
What type of circuit is this?

Vs
- +
I1 I3
V1 V2 V3
R1 R2 R3
I2
One electrical path from negative

to positive therefore series.
Vs
- +
I1 I3
V1 V2 V3
R1 R2 R3
I2
What is the relationship between the three currents?
The current is the same at each point.
I1  I 2  I 3
Vs
- +
I1 I3
V1 V2 V3
R1 R2 R3
I2
What is the relationship between the four voltages?
They add to equal the supply voltage.
Vs  V1  V2  V3
Disadvantages of Series Circuits?
When one component fails the whole circuit
fails.
The current is the same at all points and the

voltage is divided between the bulbs. The
more bulbs added the dimmer each one is.
Vs
- +
I1 I3
V1 V2 V3
R1 R2 R3
I2
How do you find total resistance in series?
Add each resistance together.
Rtotal  R1  R2  R3
Vs
- +
IT V1 IT
R1 I1
V2
R2
I2
V3
R3
I3

Vs
- +
IT V1 IT
R1 I1
V2
R2
I2
V3
R3
I3
More than one electrical path – components connected on different

branches therefore parallel.
Vs
- +
What is the
relationship
between the
IT V1 IT four
R1
I1 currents?
V2 The four currents

R2 I2 add to give the
total current.
V3
R3 I3
I T  I1  I 2  I 3
Vs
- +
What is the
relationship
between the
IT V1 IT four
R1
I1 voltages?
V2 Each voltage is
R2 I2 equal to the
supply voltage.
V3
R3 I3
VS  V1  V2  V3
Vs
- +
IT V1 IT
R1
I1 The
V2 resistance
R2 I2
in parallel?
V3
R3 I3
1 1 1 1
  
R
T
R1
R
2
R
3
If more resistors are connected in
parallel the total resistance will
always
decrease
This is because there are more
branches through which the
electricity can flow.
Advantages of the Parallel
Circuit?
When one bulb fails the rest of the circuit
continues to work.
The more components, the lower the

resistance. The total current drawn
increases. Voltage in each branch is the same as
the supply voltage therefore bulbs in parallel
will each be as bright as a single bulb.What have
you learned today?
Handout 3
Key words: resistor, resistance, series,

potential, potential divider
to:
State that a potential divider circuit
consists of a number of resistors, or a
variable resistor, connected across a
power supply.
Carry out calculations involving potential
differences and resistance in a potential
divider.
Factors that
Determine
Resistance
Length
The longer the conductor, the greater the resistance
If the wire doubles in length, it doubles in resistance
Cross-sectional Area
The larger the cross sectional area or thickness of the
conductor, the less resistance it has to charge flow.
Type of material
Some materials are better conductors
than others. The general measure of the
resistance of a substance is called the
resistivity which has the units Ωm
Temperature
Since moving charge is impeded by molecules, greater motion
at higher temperatures tends to increase resistance.
Questions
Use the Values V = 120 V, I = 10.6 A, and R = 11.3 Ω to create
problems, using each variable as the unknown.
A Voltmeter connected across the ends of a stove heating
element indicates a potential difference of 120 V when an
ammeter shows a current through the coil of 6.0 A. What is
the resistance of the coil?
A TV remote has a resistance of 9.2 Ω and is connected to
two AA batteries with a potential difference of 3.0 V. What
is the current through the remote control?
What is the potential difference across a computer power
supply with a resistance of 50 Ω if the motor draws a
current of 2.2 A
Name each component.
V V
The supply voltage is 6V. What is voltage V1? V2?
10Ω 10Ω
V1 V2
10Ω 10Ω
V1 V2
10Ω 10Ω
V1 V2
5Ω 10Ω
V1 V2
A series circuit with two resistor and a power
supply is known as a potential divider.
Why is it
called a
potential
divider?
V1 V2
The potential difference of the supply is
divided between the two resistors.
When the two resistors are identical (i.e.

have the same value of resistance), the
potential difference is split equally.
Investigating Potential Dividers
Potential Divider Circuits
A voltage divider consists of two devices,
usually resistors, connected in series.
R1=100 Ω V1 R1=4.5 kΩ V1
6V 6V
R2=100 Ω V2 R2=9 kΩ V2
The current in each resistor is calculated
using Ohm’s Law:
V
I
R
What can we say about the current in a
series circuit?
It stays the same throughout the circuit.
V I =V
I1 = = 2 R 1 2
R 1 2
In a voltage divider circuit
V V
I1 = = I2 ==
1 2
R 1 R 2
This can also be written
V V
R =
1
R
2
1 2
If the resistance of one resistor
is increased, the voltage across this
resistor will
This means the other voltage must

Potential Dividers
R1
V1  VS What do the symbols mean?
R1  R2
R2 V1 is the voltage across resistor R1
V2  VS
R1  R2 V2 is the voltage across resistor R2
R1
V1  VS VS is the supply voltage
RT
RT is the total resistance
R2
V2  VS
RT
Potential Dividers
R1
V1  VS Look again at the worksheet.
R1  R2
Use the formula to calculate
R2
V2  VS V1 and V2 for each circuit.
R1  R2
The answers found using the
R1 formula match the values
V1  VS
RT measured using the
voltmeter.
R2
V2  VS
RT
Potentiometer
The potentiometer is a special type of
voltage divider.
It is a variable resistor with a sliding

contact.
What range of output is it possible to
obtain from a potentiometer?
Range of output voltages 0V to supply

voltage.
Key words: electrical energy, power,
voltage, current, resistance
to:
State that when there is an electrical current
in a component there is an energy
transformation and give some examples.
State the relationship between energy and
power.
Carry out calculations using E = Pt
State that in a lamp electrical energy is
transformed into heat and light.
State that the energy transformation in an
electrical heater occurs in the resistance wire.
Filament Lamp
Tungsten (metal) filament becomes
so hot it glows.
Why isn’t oxygen used

inside the bulb?
Filament lamps
Electric current
passes through the
resistance wire which
is made of tungsten.
Electrical energy is
changed into heat
energy and the
wire glows white hot.
Filament lamps
produce both heat and
light.
In an electric fire, energy is converted
from
to
Resistance in a wire
We have learned that when a
voltage is applied across a
lamp, the resistance
increases.
What happens to the

temperature?
Resistance in a wire
As current passes through a resistance wire,
the wire gets hot.
This is how electric fires and filament lights

work.
The filament becomes hot enough to glow and

emit light. The bar of the electric fire is a
length of wire which also glows when hot.
What are the
Electrical energy changes
appliances change taking
place in these
electrical appliances?
energy into other forms.
Power and Energy
Electrical energy has the symbol
and is measured in
Power
The power rating of an appliance or a
component is defined as
the amount of energy used by the

component / appliance in one
second
Power
The power rating tells us the rate at
which energy is transformed, that is the
energy transformed each second.
Power
For example, an appliance with a power

rating of 250 W converts 250 Joules of
electrical energy into another form each
second.
Power
How can this be written as a formula?
Power in Watts (W)
E
P 
Energy in Joules (J)
t time in seconds (s)
Demonstration / experiment
Investigating Energy and Power
Connect the joule meter to the voltage supply and a ray box bulb to the
joule meter.
Set the supply voltage at 6V and switch on. You’ll see the counter on the
joule meter increasing (note each time the counter increases by 1, this is
100J of energy).
Record the number of joules used in 50s and 100s. Calculate the number of
joules used per second.
Power is energy used per second, in watts. Write the formula:
If the supply voltage was increased to 12V, what would you expect to
happen?
Increase supply voltage to 12V and repeat the experiment.
Worksheet / experiment
Power and Energy
Ray box bulb, 6V supply Ray box bulb, 12V supply
Number of joules used in 50 s? Number of joules used in 50

s?
Number of joules used in 100 s? Number of joules used in 100
s?
Number of joules used each Number of joules used each
second? second?
Power (W) Power (W)
Were your results as expected?
1 watt is equivalent to the transfer of 1 joule per second.

Power & Energy Example
If an electric fire uses 1.8

MJ of energy in a time of
10 minutes, calculate the
power output of the fire.
Power & Energy Example
P=?
E = 1.8 MJ = 1.8x106 J
t=10 minutes = 600 s
Formula?
E
P 
t
Power Ratings of Appliances
Different appliances have different
power ratings.
What is meant by power?

Watt’s my power rating?
500 W, 150 W, 1200 W,

100 W, 3000 W, 300 W,
800 W, 1500 W, 30 W, 60 W,
11 W
300 W
500 W
60 W,
1200 W 1500 W
30 W
150 W
100 W 3000 W
11 W
800 W
to:
State that the electrical energy
transformed each second = VI
Carry out calculations using P=IV and E=Pt
Explain the equivalence between VI, I 2R
and V2/R.
relationships between power, current,
voltage and resistance.
500 W, 150 W, 1200 W,

100 W, 3000 W, 300 W,
800 W, 1500 W, 30 W, 60 W,
11 W
300 W
500 W
60 W,
1200 W 1500 W
30 W
150 W
100 W 3000 W
11 W
800 W
Current through Appliances
Different appliances have different
power ratings.
P = IV
For appliances which use the mains supply
V=
Current through Appliances
As power increases for a fixed voltage,
what happens to the current?
As power increases the current
increases
Red flag
indicates
9V.
Live Neutral
Even with
the switch
open and
zero current
the lamp is
still at 9V.
Live Neutral
This time,
when the
switch is
open, the
lamp is at
0V and is
safe to
touch.
Live Neutral
The red flags indicate that
voltage at these points is 9V.
Closing the third switch results in a
current greater than 1A, blowing the
fuse.
Inserting a voltmeter across a bulb shows that
the bulbs are at zero volts.
If you touch them, you won’t receive an electric

shock as they are isolated from the voltage
supply.
The red flags indicate that
voltage at these points is 9V.
The fuse is now in the neutral
wire.
Closing the third switch results in a current
greater than 1A, blowing the fuse.
The red flags show that at these points the
voltage is still at 9V.
If you touch this now, you’ll complete the circuit
and receive an electric shock – you become the
“neutral wire” and allow electricity to flow
through you.
Why can a bird
sit safely on this
high voltage
power line?
What will
happen if the
bird spreads its
wings and
touches the
pylon?
Which fuse to use?
How would you calculate which fuse is
required for an appliance?
An appliance operating from the mains

supply has a supply voltage of 230V.
The rating plate gives you information

on the power of the appliance.
The formula which links voltage, power
and current:
P = VI
The general rule for fuses
The fuse value needs to be just above the
normal operating current
If the appliance Fuse value should

has a power rating be:
of:
Less than 700W 3A
More than 700W 13A
Example
What is the appropriate choice of fuse for a
mains appliance with a power rating of
330 W?
P  IV V  230V
P  330W
P
I  I ?
V
Example
What is the appropriate choice of fuse for a
mains appliance with a power rating of
330 W?
330 V  230V
I  P  330W
230 I ?
I  1.44A
Which type of appliances tend to have the
highest power ratings?
Generally, appliances which produce heat.

Which type of appliances draw the
highest current?

Which type of appliances need the largest
value of fuse?

Examples of
rating plates
to:
State that the electrical energy
transformed each second = VI
Carry out calculations using P=IV and E=Pt
Explain the equivalence between VI, I 2R
and V2/R.
relationships between power, current,
voltage and resistance.
Investigating…
power, voltage, current and
resistance.
What do you notice about
V 2
IV , I R ,
2
R
Worksheet / experiment
Power can be calculated from the
voltage across the appliance and the
current flowing through it. Written as
an equation:
P = IV
Relationship between power,
current, voltage and resistance
Our experiments showed that
2
V
IV  I R  2
R
Relationship between power,
current, voltage and resistance
2
V
P  IV  I R 
2
R
Equations for Power
P  VI and V  IR
Substituting
P  IxRxI
PI R 2
Equations for Power
P  VI and V  IR
V
I
R
Substituting
V
P  Vx
R
2
V
P
R
Key words: alternating current, direct
current, mains supply, frequency
to:
Explain in terms of current the terms a.c. and d.c.

State that the frequency of the mains supply is 50Hz.
State that the quoted value of an alternating voltage is
less than its peak value.
State that a d.c. supply and an a.c. supply of the
same quoted value will supply the same power to
a given resistor.
Direct Current (d.c.)
• The voltage drives a steady

or direct current.
• The electrons move in one
direction.
• The current (or voltage)
does not change with time.
Direct Current
Alternating Current (AC)
•An alternating
current is continually
changing direction
•The alternating
voltage and current
has a distinctive
waveform
Alternating Current
Using the oscilloscope, we can measure
the peak voltage of the a.c. supply.
The declared, quoted or

“effective”, voltage is always less
than the peak voltage.
Calculating Declared Voltage
The declared (or effective) voltage can be
calculated from the peak voltage.
The quoted voltage is ~ 0.7 x

peak voltage.
The declared voltage is the value of a.c.
voltage which gives the same heating or
lighting effect as d.c. voltage.
Mains Supply
What is the frequency of the mains
supply?
50 Hz
Mains Supply
What is meant by the frequency of the
supply?
Alternating current flows one way then
the other. It is continually changing
direction. The rate of the changing
direction is called the frequency and it is
measured in Hertz (Hz) which is the
number of forward-backward cycles in
one second.
Mains Supply
Why does the current change
direction?
Voltage pushes the current. The voltage
changes polarity causing the current to
change direction.
Mains Supply
What is the declared value of the mains
supply voltage?
230V
What is meant by the voltage of the
supply?
The voltage of a power supply or battery
is a measure of how much “push” it can
provide and how much energy it can give
to the electrical charge.
Measuring effective voltage /
current in an a.c. circuit
The effective voltage or current in an a.c.

circuit can be measured using a.c.
voltmeter or ammeter.
Measuring peak a.c. voltage using
an oscilloscope
1. Adjust the position so the trace is
central on the screen.
2. Adjust the volts/div so the trace fills
the screen.
3. Count the number of boxes from the
axis to the peak.
4. Multiply the number of boxes by the
volts / div.
Key words: electromagnetism, induced
voltage, field strength, turns.
State that a magnetic field exists around
a current carrying wire.
Identify circumstances in which a voltage
will be induced in a conductor.
State the factors which affect the size
of the induced voltage i.e. field strength,
number of turns on a coil, relative
movement.
Permanent Magnets
A magnetic field is the region around a

magnet in which a magnetic force can be
detected.
Magnetic Field Around a Current
Carry Wire
What happens when the direction of the

current is reversed?
The direction of the magnetic field is

reversed.
Electromagnets
When an electric current passes through a
wire which is coiled around an iron core, the
core becomes magnetised and an
electromagnet is produced.
When an a.c. current is used, the current

changed direction and so the magnetic field
changes direction.
e-m demo
Electromagnets
Strength of electromagnet with/without iron
core?
Effect of increasing current through the coil?
Effect of increasing number of turns in the

coil (while keeping current constant)?
How is an electromagnet
constructed?
A current through a wire can be used to

create an electromagnet.
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/compass/index.html
How is an electromagnet
constructed?
A conducting wire is wound round an iron core.
When a current passes through the

conductor there is a magnetic field around
the conductor. By wrapping it round a soft
iron core, the magnetic field is concentrated.
How can the strength of an
electromagnet be increased?
By increasing the current through the
coil.
By increasing the number of turns on the

coil of wire.
What are the advantages of an
electromagnet over a permanent
magnet?
The electromagnet can be switched off.
The magnetic field strength can be varied

(how?)
The electromagnet provides a much stronger

magnet field for the same size than a
permanent magnet.
Electromagnetic Induction
What happens when a wire is moved in a

magnetic field?
A voltage is created – or induced. For this

reason we call this electromagnetic
induction.
Electromagnetic Induction
http://micro.magnet.fsu.edu/electromag/java/faraday2/
What happens when a permanent magnet

is moved towards or away from a coil of
wire?
What do we know so far?
When a current passes through a coil of
wire, there is a magnetic field around the
wire.
Changing direction of the current changes

the direction of the magnetic field.
What do we know so far?
When we move a wire in a magnetic field,
voltage is induced.
When we move a magnet in a coil of wire,

a voltage is induced.
What do we have in common? Changing

magnetic field leading to electricity!
FARADAY’S EXPERIMENT 1832
B
A
FARADAY’S EXPERIMENT 1832
A current in B is
only present when
the current in A is
changing.
I
B
A
I HAVE DISCOVERED
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Now I understand!
VOLTAGE IS ONLY
INDUCED WHEN
THERE IS RELATIVE
MOTION BETWEEN A
CONDUCTOR AND A
MAGNETIC FIELD
S N
S N
STRONGER FIELD (B)
S N
STRONGER FIELD (B)
S N
FASTER
S N
FASTER
S N
THE INDUCED VOLTAGE IS
DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO
THE RATE OF CHANGE OF
MAGNETIC FIELD
What is observed when…
the magnet is stationary next to the coil?
Nothing! No voltage is induced.
The magnet is moved in the opposite

direction (towards the coil instead of
away from it)?
The voltage produced has opposite
polarity.
What is observed when…
the magnet is moved backwards and
forwards?
Voltage induced which has a changing
polarity.
What does this mean for the current?

The current will change direction – it is
a.c.!
Generating Electricity
A voltage can be induced in a coil of wire
if a magnet is moved towards (or away
from the coil).
This effect is known as induction.
What does the induced voltage depend

on?
Induced voltage depends on:
strength of the magnetic field (the stronger
the greater the induced voltage)
speed of movement (the faster the greater the
induced voltage).
number of turns in the coil (the more turns of
wire on the coil the greater the induced
voltage).
Virtual Int 2 Physics – Electricity & Electronics – em induction

To summarise:
A voltage is induced across the ends of a wire

coil is the coil experiences a changing magnetic
field.
I HAVE DISCOVERED
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
Now I understand!
VOLTAGE IS ONLY
INDUCED WHEN
THERE IS RELATIVE
MOTION BETWEEN A
CONDUCTOR AND A
MAGNETIC FIELD
THE INDUCED VOLTAGE IS
DIRECTLY PROPORTIONAL TO
THE RATE OF CHANGE OF
MAGNETIC FIELD
How do we “create” electricity?

A Simple Generator
A current can be passed through a wire to
result in movement (a motor!).
Electrical energy was changed to kinetic

energy.
A Simple Generator
The motor can work “in reverse”.
Kinetic energy can be used to create

electricity in a dynamo or simple
generator.
Transformers
What is a transformer?
Demonstration.
Transformers
A transformer consists of two separate coils of
wire wound on the same iron core.
The first coil, the primary, is connected to an a.c.

voltage supply. There is therefore a changing
magnetic field around the core.
This changing field induces a voltage across the

other coil, the secondary. A current flows as a
result of the induced voltage.
Transformer Terms
We talk about
Primary coil (the first one – connected to

a.c. voltage)
Secondary coil (the second one – voltage
is induced)
Number of turns – number of “loops” of
wire in coil
Transformer Terms
We talk about
Np – the number of turns on the primary coil

Ns – the number of turns on the secondary coil
Vp – the voltage applied to the primary coil
Vs – the voltage induced across secondary coil
Ip – the current in the primary coil
Is – the current in the secondary coil
THE TRANSFORMER
Laminated soft
iron core
PRIMARY Np Turns SECONDARY NS Turns

AC input VP Volts AC output VS Volts
VS NS

VP NP
Equipment
2 coils
1 x a.c. voltmeter
Four wires
A variable power supply.
Set your power supply to 2V. YOU

MUST NOT EXCEED 2V as the
primary voltage.
Measure the output voltage for a 2V input
for each of the combinations of number
of turns in the primary and secondary.
Record your results in your table.

Calculate
VS and
NS
Vp Np
and record your results in your table.

Investigating Transformers
Vs Ns
VP N P Vs Ns Vp Np
2V 125 125
2V 125 500
2V 125 625
2V 500 125
2V 500 500
2V 500 625
Transformers
Vs Ns
VP N P Vs Ns Vp Np
2V 125 2 V 125 1 1
2V 125 8 V 500 4 4
2V 125 10 V 625 5 5
2V 500 0.5 V 125 0.25 0.25
2V 500 2 V 500 1 1
2V 500 2.5 V 625 1.25 1.25
Transformers
A step-up transformer is one in which the
secondary voltage is greater than the primary.
A step-up transformer has more turns on the

secondary coil than the primary coil.
Which of the transformers are step-up?

Transformers
A step-down transformer is one in which the
secondary voltage is less than the primary.
A step-down transformer has fewer turns on

the secondary coil than the primary coil.
Which are step-down transformers?

What would happen if a d.c. supply
was connected to a transformer?
At the moment of switching on, there is a

changing magnetic field which would induce
a voltage in the secondary coil. The same at
the moment of switching off.
Once switched on, no changing magnetic

field (since steady current) and therefore no
induced voltage.
Step-Up Transformer
What is a step up transformer?
What can you say about the relationship

between the number of turns in the secondary
and primary?
Ns  NP
and the voltage in the secondary and

primary?
Vs  VP
Step-Down Transformer
What is a step down transformer?
What can you say about the relationship

between the number of turns in the secondary
and primary? N  N
s P
and the voltage in the secondary and

primary?
Vs  VP
Energy Losses in Transformers
For calculations, we often assume that

the transformer is 100% efficient.
however in reality they are about 95%
efficient.
What causes the energy losses?

Energy Losses in Transformers
- Heating effect of current in coils (coils
are long length of wire with resistance
hence electrical energy changed to
heat)
- Iron core being magnetised and
demagnetised
- Transformer vibrating -> sound
- Magnetic field “leakage”
Voltage and Current in Transformers
Assuming an ideal transformer with no

energy losses total energy input must
equal total energy output.
Since rate of energy input is power:
power input = power output

Voltage and Current in
Transformers
Power is given as
P=VI
so
V p I p  VS I S
Vs I P
which can be rearranged as

VP I S
Vs I P

VP I S
In a step-up transformer, the
voltage in the secondary is
greater than the primary.
What happens to the current?
Vs I P

VP I S
The current in the coils is in
the reverse ratio to the
voltage therefore as voltage
increases, current decreases.
Vs I P

VP I S
In a step-down transformer,
the voltage in the secondary is
less than the primary. What
happens to the current?
Vs I P

VP I S
The current in the coils is in
the reverse ratio to the
voltage therefore as voltage
decreases, current increases.
Transformers
np IsVp
 
ns Vs Ip
np = number of turns on primary coil
ns = number of turns on secondary coil
Vp = voltage across primary coil
Vs = voltage across secondary coil
Ip = current in primary coil
Is = current in secondary coil
Type of Turns Effect on Effect on
transformer ratio? VOLTAGE? CURRENT?
Step-up
Step-down
Key words: electromagnetism, induced
voltage, field strength, turns.
State that high voltages are used in the
transmission of electricity to reduce
power loss.
Carry out calculations involving power loss

in transmission lines.
Transmitting Electrical Energy
Transformers are used by the National

Grid system through which electrical
energy is transmitted.
Demonstration
Electricity Transmission
Electrical energy is transferred from the power station to
the consumer via the National Grid.
• Electricity is sent for many kilometres along transmission
lines on pylons.
Transformers in Electrical
Transmission
What happens as current flows through

the wires?
The length of the wires means large

resistance and hence heating in the wires.
Transformers in Electrical Transmission
Energy is changed from electrical to heat

resulting in large power losses in the wires.
Relationship between power, current and

resistance?
PI R 2
Transmission
At the power station, a step-up transformer
is used to increase the voltage.
Why?
Transmission
Vs I P

VP I S
As voltage stepped up, current stepped down

by the same factor. And since P  I R by
2
reducing current the power losses due to
heating are reduced.
Transformers in Electrical Transmission
This stepping up of the

voltage and hence stepping
down of the current makes
the transfer much more
efficient. The losses due
to heating are reduced.
Transmission
At the consumer end, a
step-down transformer
reduces the voltage to
230V, increasing the
current.

Electricity

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What is

This includes circuits, Ohm’s

What is inside an atom?

By the end of this lesson you will be able

State that electrons are free to move in a

protons (with a positive charge)

Electron (-) Proton (+)

Electron (-) Proton (+)

which is the same size as the charge on an

Electrons move round a circuit from

Good conductors allow electrons to move

movement of charge round a

We call this electric current.

By the end of this lesson you will be able

Draw circuit diagrams to show the correct positions of

A series circuit has only one electrical

You can trace from one side of the

A series circuit has only one electrical

You can trace from one side of the

Physics Animations – Series Circuits

On the back of p2 carefully draw each symbol and

Voltmeter Switch Lamp

Follow the instructions carefully!

Lesson 2 build a series circuit.pub

What is the meter called?

Where is it positioned in the circuit?

Bulbs are much dimmer!

Make a note of the positions each time,

What can you say about the current in a

To be successful at circuit diagrams:

What have we observed?

How can this be written mathematically?

Virtual Int 2 Physics – Electricity & Electronics – Circuits – Series Circuits

Which components would you need?

By the end of this lesson you will be able

Draw circuit diagrams to show the correct positions of an

Build a series circuit which includes a 6V

Draw the circuit diagram for your circuit:

What do you notice about the readings on

What do you notice about the readings on

What does the circuit diagram look like?

Try drawing it on Crocodile Physics.

This is a circuit with different branches.

When it reaches a junction, the current

What have we observed?

By the end of this lesson you will be able

Draw and identify the circuit symbols for a

It is converted into others forms of

As they move the electrons transfer energy

This means at any two points the electron has

As they pass through

Electrons which have

There is a “potential” difference

The potential difference (p.d.), or voltage,

A 9 V battery will give how much energy

A 1.5 V battery will give how much energy

A battery with a p.d. of 6V will give how

An ammeter is connected in the circuit

By the end of this lesson you will be able to:

By the end of this lesson you will have