Referencing

Referencing is about acknowledging the sources of

information used in either written or oral scholarly
work or text.
References are therefore, a list of texts used in an
academic work.
Bibliography however, is a list of recommended
readings on a given topic which may or may not have
been used or cited in a scholarly text (document)
 Justification for Referencing
Helps the reader to find the original source if they
wish to verify or read more on the topic.
Standardising the way scholars write.
Protecting the intellectual property rights of writers
from plagiarism.
Continuity of research and intellectual development
because it shows what is already done by others.
In-text citation
Citing within the text of an assignment; include the
author(s) surname(s), year of publication and page
number (for direct quotation)
 In-text Citation (Single Author)
As Mwale (1993: 47) points out “it is a peculiarity of
academic learning that its focus is not the world itself
but others views of that world.” (direct quotation) (at
the beginning of sentence, or in between)
Roberts (2008) suggests the chief cause of plagiarism is
uncertainty about how to cite sources and
misconceptions about referencing terminology.
(paraphrased)
It is a peculiarity of academic learning that its focus is
not the world itself but others views of that world
(Laurillard, 1993: 47). (at the end of sentence)
Multiple Authors:

A recent study found a possible genetic cause

of alcoholism (Pauling and Liu, 2005)
Pauling, Liu, and Guo (2005) conducted a
study that discovered a possible genetic cause
of alcoholism……. Pauling et al. (2005)
discovered a possible genetic cause of
alcoholism.
A recent study found a possible genetic cause
of alcoholism (Pauling et al., 2005).
Footnote and Endnote
There are times when you may have to include a
footnote or an endnote to supplement what you
have written in the main text.
A footnote is similar to an endnote in that the
content is the same. The only difference is that a
footnote is placed at the bottom of the page while
an endnote appears at the end of a text like a
chapter.
MS Word, references, insert footnote
 Types of footnote and
endnotes
a. Copyright permission footnote/endnote is
used to give credit to the source for long
quotations, tables or graphs, and other
lengthy information within a text.
b. Content footnote/endnote provides
additional information (notes) to the issues
discussed in the text. They are used to
provide long explanatory notes that could be
distracting to readers.
 Plagiarism
Plagiarism involves deliberately or inadvertently presenting
someone else's ideas as your own. It is academic theft or
cheating.
It applies to direct quotations, summarised and
paraphrased arguments.
Plagiarism is treated very seriously and usually results in
suspension of student, withdrawal of academic title, legal
repercussions, or a fail in assignment or research project.
APA Style
There are different modes of referencing that can be
used in essays.
The American Psychologist Association (APA) (1994)
The Turabian Style (1996)
The Modern Language of America (MLA) (1999)

Each manual specifies how books, journals,

newspapers, dissertations etc. are referenced
1. Books by Single Author
Sheril, R. D. (1956). The Terrifying Future:
Contemplating color television. San Diego: Halstead.

2. Book by multiple authors

Smith, J. and Peter, Q. (1992). Hairball: An intensive
peek behind the surface of an enigma. Hamilton:
McMaster University Press.
Smith, J., Peter, Q. and Andrew, J.
3. Article in an edited book
Mcdonalds, A. (1993). Practical Methods for the
Apprehension and Sustained Containment of
Supernatural Entities. In G. L. Yeager (Ed),
Paranormal and Occult Studies: Case studies in
application (42–64). London: OtherWorld Books.
4. Journal Article
Benjaminsen, T., Thom, Z. and Sjaastad, E. (2002). Race
for the Prize: Land transactions and rent
appropriation in the Malian Cotton Zone.
European Journal of Development Research. 14 (2):
129–52.
volume (issue number): page numbers
5. Conference Proceedings Publication
Edriss, A., Saka, V. and Mbewe, S. (1992) Effects of
Cultural Practices Diseases of Beans. In P.C. Phiri and
C. Chonde (Eds). Proceedings of the Fifth Regional
Bean Workshop for Southern Africa (97- 103).
Patancheru, India.
6. Newspaper Article
Muwamba, E. (2014). Malawi Literacy Levels at 62.7%.
The Nation, 4-5. [15 October 2014].
7. Thesis or Dessertation
Mwale, S.T. (2014). The Impact of the Farm Input
Subsidy Programme. Unpublished MSc Thesis,
Lilongwe University of Agriculture and Natural
Resources.
8. On line Articles
Kendall, G. (2003). From Liberalism to Neo-liberalism.
http://eprints.qut.edu.au/archive/00000134/01/
Ga vin_Kendall.pdf [Accessed on 23 May, 2016].
Mtika, C. (2012). Malawi Rural Finance Company
Going Bust. Nyasatimes: Malawi’s breaking online news
source. http://www.nyasatimes.com/2012 /05/10/
malawi-rural-finance-company-going-bust/[Accessed
on 12 May, 2016].
Example of a Reference List
References
Boserup, E. (1965). The Conditions of Agricultural Growth-
The Economics of Agrarian Change under Population
Pressure. London: Allen & Unwin.
Friedmann, H. and Wyne, J. (1977). Dependency Theory: A
Critique. Canadian Journal of Sociology, 2 (4): 399-416.
Migot-Adholla, S., Hazell, P., Blarell, B. and Place, F.
(1991). Indigenous Land Rights Systems in Sub Saharan
Africa. A Constraint on Productivity? World Bank
Economic Review, 5(1):155-75.
(List should be in alphabetical order)
Critical Thinking

The kind of thinking which seeks to

explore questions about existing
knowledge for issues which are not
clearly defined and for which there are
no clear-cut answers.
Attributes of Critical Thinker
asks pertinent questions
assesses statements and arguments
is able to admit a lack of
understanding or information
has a sense of curiosity/scepticism
is interested in finding new solutions
is willing to examine beliefs, assumptions,
and opinions and weigh them against facts
listens carefully to others and is able to give
feedback.
suspends judgment until all facts have been
gathered and considered.
Critical questions
Why?
How far?
How often?
To what extent?
How do we know this is true?
How reliable is this source?
What could be going on below the
surface?
What do we not know about this?
Which is preferable?
For what reasons?
Critical Thinking When Reading
Critical reading is a form of reading that
does not take a text at face value, but
involves an examination of claims put
forward in the text.
When reading, you seek information and
are confronted with different views which
forces you to consider your own position,
hence the reader is converted to a writer.
What Critical Thinking When
Reading Involves
1 Identifying the line of reasoning in
the text
2 Critically evaluating the line of
reasoning
3 Evaluating the evidence
4 Evaluating the writer’s conclusion
1 Identify the Line of Reasoning
What is the main argument or
position being defended?

Is the line of reasoning clear? Is the

case that is being made backed up by
evidence and example leading to
conclusions
The argument has 3 parts: conclusion,
reasons, and evidence
Conclusion: main argument.
Reasons/ premise/ proposition/syllogism/
assumptions: support the conclusion; they
persuade the reader to believe the
conclusion.
Evidence: also supports conclusion with
fact, statistic (numbers or outcome), from
experiment to avoid people questioning your
reason.
Bilingualism and multilingualism confer
many benefits. Speakers of more than one
language have a better understanding of
how languages are structured because they
can compare across two different systems.
People who speak only one language lack
this essential point of reference. In many
cases, a second language can help people
to have a better understanding and
appreciation of their first language’.
Bilingualism and multilingualism confer
many benefits. Speakers of more than one
language have a better understanding of
how languages are structured because they
can compare across two different systems.
People who speak only one language lack
this essential point of reference. In many
cases, a second language can help people
to have a better understanding and
appreciation of their first language’.
There has been a tremendous rise in the rate
of industrial injury. This year there were over
thirty reports of repetitive strain injury in the
factory (Phiri, 2008). All those injured worked
in the fibre department. Ten years ago there
were no reported injuries. This shows that our
work conditions are taking a more serious toll
upon our health than in the past.
There has been a tremendous rise in the rate
of industrial injury. This year there were over
thirty reports of repetitive strain injury in the
factory (Phiri, 2008). All those injured worked
in the fibre department. Ten years ago there
were no reported injuries. This shows that our
work conditions are taking a more serious toll
upon our health than in the past.
Parents should give their children the best
chances in life, so we should encourage
parents to have babies in winter. People born
in the winter have the longest life expectancy
and the best chance of good health.
Moreover, they are most likely to succeed in
sport, particularly football. A study by the
Association of Football Statisticians revealed
that 40% of the Africans in the Premier
League were born in winter, compared with
just 15% in summer.
Parents should give their children the best
chances in life, so we should encourage
parents to have babies in winter. People born
in the winter have the longest life expectancy
and the best chance of good health.
Moreover, they are most likely to succeed in
sport, particularly football. A study by the
Association of Football Statisticians revealed
that 40% of the Africans in the Premier
League were born in winter, compared with
just 15% in summer.
 Not an Argument
Several young people die each year training
for construction trades. Legislation is in place
to cover health and safety at work, but some
employers argue that this is too expensive to
implement and onerous to monitor.
2 Critically Evaluate the Line of
Reasoning
(a)Does it contain sufficient reasons or
propositions or statements that
strengthen or prove the argument?
(b) Are points made in the best logical
order? Check for generalisations.
(c) What statements undermine the
argument? flawed reasoning/fallacies.

Examples of fallacies
Ad hominem: Attacks individual not argument. Don't
believe what Kim says about global warming. Kim
dropped out of college!
Red herring: Distracts by changing subject.
Post hoc: "Since event Y followed event X, event Y must
have been caused by event X." I studied hard and failed
the mathematics test, certainly, studying caused my
failure.
Hasty generalisation: This is a conclusion based on
insufficient or biased evidence.
Even though it's only the first day, I can tell this is going to
be a boring course
Practice on Logical Consistency
Accidents happen on building sites
when workers don’t take sufficient care
of health and safety. Many employees
are lax in following health and safety
guidance. This means that there will
be a rise in accidents on building sites
over the next year.
3 Evaluate the Evidence
What kinds of evidence or examples
does the writer use? Check the
statements, or anecdotal evidence;
Facts/opinion; Triangulation
Is the evidence strong enough? Does
it support the argument
 Is the data up to date? Check the
research date
What are the sources of information?
Are they reliable, Why?
Check for bias: Statistics- sample size
or the number of people interviewed,
Would it give you a full picture?
Does their writing reflect any hidden
agendas? Ie political viewpoint or
interested parties
5 Analysing the Writer’s
Conclusion
 Do the propositions and evidence
given support the writer's conclusions?

 Does the line of reasoning lead you to

make the same conclusions?
Critical Thinking When Writing
1 Be clear about your conclusions
2 Have a clear line of reasoning
3 Use evidence to support your
reasoning
4 Evaluate your own writing through
critical reading
5 Take multiple perspectives
1 Be clear about your
conclusions
Start with a conclusion to avoid
being vague.

The conclusion gives you goal post

at which to direct your shots.
2 Have a clear line of
reasoning
(a) Drafts may help refine your thinking
(b) Work to a writing plan which sets out
the reasons, examples and evidence in
the most logical order.
(c) Link your ideas and pieces of
information so that your writing is
not just a list of facts but a line of
reasoning
(d)Keep arguments clear, from the
information gathered, select the points
that best support your argument.
3 Use evidence to support
your reasoning

Choose few items that clearly

support your case
4 Evaluate your own writing
through critical reading

Examine your own writing in

the same way you would
examine someone else’s as
outlined in critical reading.
Take multiple perspectives

Analyse your work from more

than one perspective
Thus you consider good and bad
points; Strengths and weaknesses
 Oral Skills
Types of speech according to delivery
Impromptu: spontaneous
Extemporaneous: preparation of notes prior to
delivery, which is conversational (lecture)
 Manuscript: written speech that is read to
audience (parliament speech)
Memorised speech
Examples of speeches
Valediction-formal farewell/
graduation speech
 Toast: at weddings/social gathering to
express goodwill
 Eulogy: praise a person who recently
passed away
 Invocation: to ask for assistance or
help
Oral Skills/Public Speaking
Impromptu speaking
Speaking without Preparation

What are the benefits of impromptu

speaking?
Improve oral expression of thought
Develop confidence in public speaking
Think quickly on your feet
Develop leadership and communication
skills
Techniques of Impromptu
speaking
A. Give yourself time to prepare
Take deep breaths as this helps to fuel your
voice.
Rise slowly, Use this time to collect your
thoughts and decide on the purpose and plan of
your speech.
Develop a simple position, action and benefit
statement.
Think about the opening sentence
B. Speak and Act in a Confident Manner
 Posture: Stand straight but not stiff. Demonstrate
enthusiasm and show interest.
 Eye contact: keep your body facing the audience as
much as possible to maintain eye contact. This
helps to demonstrate your confidence (avoid
looking at the back wall, or one spot).
 Movement: Do not stay frozen in one spot. Make
an occasional step to either side or even half step
towards the audience for emphasis. When you
move always look at a person in the direction you
are going.
Gestures: Use gestures for emphasis of
important points. Between gestures, simply relax
your hands to your sides. Avoid keeping hand in
your pockets, behind your back and crossed.
Avoid grasping the stand.
C. Deliver slowly/ pause
Gives you time to organize your thought
 Gives audience time to absorb and
respond/react to your speech
 Gives you time to listen, and formulate answers
audience
 Pausing and delivering slowly helps you to avoid
annoying “verbal tics” such as umm, ahh and ah
D. Focus
Keep the focus on the subject while talking.
Don't think of any negatives (e.g. being unprepared,
but make it interesting and inspiring
Talk directly to the audience and adapt to their
feedback.
Personalise the speech (tell your story and make it
conversational), for example, “according to my
understanding…” Be brief and to the point (Don't
ramble or say too much on the subject). Use short
sentences, keep it simple so everyone can understand.
Impromptu Speech Structure
Opening
Open by addressing the Chairperson or Master of
Ceremonies.
 Attention grabber: joke/question/current events
State the question you are answering and the point
that you wish to make or your position.
Body
Try to find one or two central themes
Open and close each section with clear transition. Make it
easy for your listener to follow your story.

Conclusion
Be brief and look for an elegant closing that links back to
the opening and call to action (what you want the audience
to do, believe or understand). As you have seen…,first..,
second… therefore
End by acknowledging the Chairperson
 Argumentation Speaking (Debate)
Act of formal argument which involves opposing points.
Thus you either argue for or against a topic or idea.
First, know your position; oppose or proposer.
Listen attentively to the person you are debating with; their
arguments, points, etc. Check on their weaknesses in the
argument and also their strengths. These may remind you
of important facts about your position.
Say a greeting at the beginning of your speech
 Applaud each speaker
Present your case with facts, figures and stories.
Be humble in victory and gracious
Don’ts for Argumentation
Speaking
Do not make it personal
Do not provide misleading information
Do not use mannerisms that are distracting
Do not use inappropriate language
Never interrupt other speakers when they are
speaking
Discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of manuscript,
extemporaneous, memorised speeches
 Develop Speech Purpose
Determine the reason for speaking:
General Objective: Inform, persuade
Specific objective: What your audience should
know, do, believe, feel etc. Uses infinitive verb.
a) Informative speech
To explain the benefits…; To describe the
differences….; To report about…
a) Persuasive speech uses action verbs
To influence critics…..; to motivate listeners..; to
reinforce audience beliefs…; to change audience
attitudes towards…
 Persuasive Informative
Problem – solution highlight the In some cases,
problem and then lectures may teach
offer a solution. about how to
overcome a problem
Benefit Outlines the benefits Focusses on the
of the solution. importance of the
information
Evidence to build Proof: case studies, Emphasis is on the
trust success stories all content
contribute to trust
and “social proof.”

Action there must be a call Can also suggest that

to action at the end people act — “put
what you’ve learned
into practice.”
 Stages of Speech Making
1. Topic Selection: Analyze yourself, audience, occasion,
subject area.
2. Topic Development: Topic, speech format

3. Presentation: Work to manage anxiety, Rehearse the

presentation, Deliver the presentation

4. Post-presentation Analysis: Speech evaluation;

strengths and weaknesses in content, evidence- examples used.
Helps one to improve in speech planning and presentation.
 Analysis of Important Factors in
Speech Writing and Delivery
A. Speaker:
Good speakers have insight -they know their own
strengths and limitations.
Know their audiences. Nature and concerns of the
people to be addressed.
Always prepare – they conduct rehearsals of the
presentation.
Keep the audience interested in what they have to say
 Value criticism from post analysis and apply it the next
time they are on the spotlight.
B. Audience: Pitfall of public speaking is the tendency to
address speaker’s interests and not the audience’s.
Audience analysis: age, gender, family orientation, religion,
cultural background, socio-economic status.

C. Occasion: what you need to know about the occasion

(nature), date, time, duration, size of audience.

D. Subject area: worthiness to speaker and audience,

appropriateness to occasion and audience, availability of
material
Topic Development:
a. Narrowing the topic
b. Formats of speeches
(i) The pyramid form

(ii) The upside-down pyramid

Two pyramids

Rectangular form
 Parts of Speech: 1.
Introduction
A. Get audience attention
Greet audience, introduce yourself
Cite a startling (shocking) fact or opinion, question,
quotation anecdote, that makes them start thinking
B. State your thesis statement: what the speech is about
‘I am here to present a talk on the topic body fitness.’
State your position and what you hope to achieve
C. Establish your credibility
Your experience on the topic (research, qualification,
background) or why you are speaking on the topic.
D. Speech outline
 Main Body
Show clear reasoning. (elaboration should
include facts, figures, examples)

Include frequent summaries after discussing

a sub point, to help the listener remember
your message.
Include gestures

Include visual aids.

Conclusion
Transition to conclusion: ‘So as you can see’, ‘to
conclude’
Summarise the main points of your presentation ‘first
I discussed about.., then talked about.. and lastly I
explained about..’
Call to action in persuasive speech (ask your audience
to do what you spoke about)
End with a memorable thought (could be linked with
the opening)
Tips for an effective conclusion
Do not end abruptly
Don’t ramble (introduce additional points, repeat
reasons and evidence)
Techniques of Oral
Presentations
Make short speeches, human attention span is short.
Visual aids help a great deal. Use the black/white board or
PowerPoint to present key words.
Practice/reherse your oral presentation before you give it
in front of an audience.
Do not begin with jokes in academic presentations.
(statement of the topic that you investigated)
Avoid misrepresentation of facts.
Engage the audience by asking questions and giving
answers.
Choose language that your audience will understand.
 Speaker Ethics
Mannerisms: Habitual gestures/way of speaking
Destructive mannerisms include grasping the stand,
twiddling with a pencil, standing on one foot, keeping
hand in your pockets, behind your back or crossed..
They distract audience and speaker concentration.
Any mannerisms which prevent the free use of your
hands for natural gestures may affect your voice.
Dressing
Dress descent and for the occasion; smart if it is
a formal occasion, smart casual/traditional for a
social gathering.
Maintain Groomed hair, polished shoes, avoid
tight clothes.
Ladies should avoid jewerly that dangles,
sparkles and makes noise. Use simple make up.
Men may wish to button their suits depending
on level of formality. Colors for the shirt and tie
should not be too bright and should coordinate
the suit.
Use of Visual Aids in Speech
Presentations
Only one key point per visual (slide) unless the audience is
very familiar with the subject.
Organize material into natural categories and contrasts. E.g.
Before vs. after, problem and solution, advantages vs.
disadvantages, beginning to end, costs vs. benefits, etc.
Use variety to increase interest: pictures, graphs and
symbols
Maximum of 5 points under one heading.
Use bulleted words or short phrases only, except for quotes.
Do not block the audience's vision; limit the time
your back is facing the audience.
Make sure you know how to operate the equipment;
practice it ahead of time; have backup cords, bulbs,
adapters, etc; prepare for the worst
Impromptu speech practice
Assessment
Organization: introduction, body (transitions),
conclusion
Ability to communicate idea with point and example
in organized, coherent and entertaining manner.
Personalization of message
Confidence
Pauses
Protocol: acknowledging chairperson at beginning
and end
Examinations
To cover all topics Communication process, Essay,
referencing, Critical thinking and Oral skills
Exam structure:
Multiple choice short answer questions.