Sensors and Applications

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Goals of the Chapter
 Define classification of sensors and some terminologies
 Introduce various types of sensors for measurement
purpose and their applications
 Example: Displacement, motion, level, pressure, temperature, …
 Actuators

Definition:
 Actuators are the muscle behind a Mechatronics system
that accepts a control command and produces a change
in the physical system by generating force, motion
(displacement and velocity), heat, flow, etc.
 An actuator is also a transducer because it changes one
type of physical quantity into some alternative form
 An actuator is usually activated by a low-level command
signal, so an amplifier may be required to provide
sufficient power to drive the actuator
Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Active sensors
 Introduction

Signal Signal
Sensing conversion/ Output
conditioning
element processing presentation
element
element
Non-electrical Electrical
quantity signal

 Sensors
 Elements which generate variation of electrical quantities (EQ) in
response to variation of non-electrical quantities (NEQ)
 Examples of NEQ
 Temperature, displacement, humidity, fluid flow, speed, pressure,…

 Sensor are sometimes called transducers but all

transducers are not sensor
Introduction - Use of Sensors
1. Information gathering: Provide data for display purpose
 This gives an understanding of the current status of the system
parameters
 Example: Car speed sensor and speedometer, which records the
speed of a car against time

2. System control: Signal from the sensor is an input to a

controller

System
Controller under
Desires signal control Output signal

Sensor
Introduction -- Sensor Specifications (Static Chxts)
• Transducers or measurement systems are not perfect systems.
Mechatronics design engineer must know the capability and
shortcoming of a transducer or measurement system to properly
assess its performance. There are a number of performance related
parameters of a transducer or measurement system. These
parameters are called as sensor specifications (inform the user to the
about deviations from the ideal behavior of the sensors)
• Following are various specifications (static characteristics) of a sensor
1. Range: indicates the limits between which the input can vary.
2. Span: The span is difference between the maximum and minimum
values of the input
Introduction -- Sensor Specifications

3. Error: is the difference between the result of the measurement and

the true value.

4. Accuracy: It is the closeness of the instrument output to the True

Value of the measured quantity.

5. Precision: Is the closeness of repeated measurement values.

6. Repeatability: It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same

output for repeated applications of same input value.

7. Sensitivity: the ratio of the change in the magnitude of the output

quantity to the magnitude of input quantity.

Introduction -- Sensor Specifications

8. Hysteresis: is an error of a sensor, which is defined as the maximum

difference in output at any measurement value within the sensor’s
specified range when approaching the point first with increasing and
then with decreasing the input parameter.
Introduction -- Sensor Specifications

9. Resolution: Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of

input parameter that can be detected in the output signal.
10. Dead band: The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of
input values for which there is no output.
11. Dead time: The dead time of a sensor device is the time duration from the
application of an input until the output begins to respond or change.
12. Nonlinearity: The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of the
actual measured curve of a sensor from the ideal curve.
13. Response time: describes the speed of change in the output on a step-
wise change of the measurand.
Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Active sensors
Classification of Sensors
 Sensors can be divided on the basis of
 Method of applications
 Method of energy conversion used
 Nature of output signals
 Electrical principle

 In general, the classification of sensors is given by

 Primary and secondary sensors
 Active and passive sensors
 Analog and Digital sensors
Primary and Secondary Sensors
 Classification is based on the method of application
 Primary sensor
 The input NEQ is directly sensed by the sensor
 The physical phenomenon is converted into another NEQ

 Secondary sensor
 The output of the primary sensor is fed to another (secondary)
sensor that converts the NEQ to EQ

NEQ NEQ EQ
Load Strain-
cell gauge
Primary Secondary
sensor sensor
Weight Displacement Resistance
(Force F) d R
Active and Passive Sensor
 Classification based on the basis of energy conversion
 Active sensor
 Generates voltage/current in response to NEQ variation
 Are also called self-generating sensors
 Normally, the output of active sensors is in V or mV
 Examples
 Thermocouples: A change in temperature produces output voltage
 Photovoltaic cell: Change solar energy into voltage
 Hall-effect sensors, …

NEQ EQ
Active
Ex. Temperature sensors Voltage or current
Active and Passive ….
 Passive sensors
 Sensors that does not generate voltage or current, but produce element variation
in R, L, or C
 Need an additional circuit to produce voltage or current variation
 Examples
 Thermistor: Change in temperature leads to change in resistance
 Photo resistor: Change in light leads to change in resistance
 Straingauge: Change in length or position into change in resistance)
 LVDT, Mic

NEQ R, L, C

Passive
sensors
Analog and Digital Sensors
 Classification based on the nature of the output signal
 Analog sensor
 Gives an output that varies continuously as the input changes
 Output can have infinite number of values within the sensor’s range

 Digital sensor
 Has an output that varies in discrete steps or pulses or sampled form
and so can have a finite number of values
 E.g., Revolution counter: A cam, attached to a revolving body whose
motion is being measured, opens and closes a switch
 The switching operations are counted by an electronic counter
Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Resistive sensors
 Potentiometers, temperature dependent resistors, strain gauge,
photoconductors (photoresistors), Piezoresistive
 Capacitive sensors
 Inductive sensors
 Active sensors
Resistive Sensors - Potentiometer
 Examples: Displacement, liquid level (in petrol-tank level
indicator) using potentiometer
 Convert s linear (translatory) or angular (rotary) displacement
into a change of resistance in the resistive element provided with
a movable contact

 Petrol-tank level indicator

 Change in petrol level moves a
potentiometer arm
 Output signal is proportion to the
external voltage source applied
across the potentiometer
 The energy in the output signal
comes from the external power
source
Resistive Sensors - Potentiometer
Resistive Sensors – Potentiometer …
 A linear or rotary movement of a moving contact on a slide
wire indicates the magnitude of the variable as a change in
resistance which can easily be converted by a proper
electrical circuit into measurements of volt or current
Resistive Sensors – Temperature Dependent Resistors
 Two classes of thermal resistors are
1. Metallic element
2. Semiconductor
1. For most metals, the resistance (to current flow) increases
with increase in temperature (−100 to +800 °C)
R (T )  R0 [1  1T   2T  ...]  R0 [1  T ]
2

 Where  is the temperature coefficient of resistance and given as

1 R • Ro Ω is the resistance at 0°C
 
T R0

 Example: Platinum
 Has a linear temperature-resistance characteristics
 Reproducible over a wide range of temperature −200 to +800 °C
 Platinum Thermometers are used for temperature measurement
Resistive Sensors – Temperature Dependent…
2. Semiconductor based resistance thermometers elements
 The resistance of such elements decreases with increasing
temperature
 called: Thermistor
 The resistance-temperature relationship is non-linear and
governed by
1 1
(  )
R (T )  R0 e T T0
; T0  3000 K
 Where R0 is the resistance at absolute temp (in Kelvin) and  is
material constant expressed in degree Kelvin

 Most semiconductor materials used for thermometry possess

high resistivity and high negative temperature coefficients
(resistance of these elements decreases with temperature)
Resistive Sensors – Strain Gauges
Resistive Sensors – Strain Gauges

 Most strain gauges are smaller than a

postage stamp, and they look something
like this

Sensors and Applications

Resistive Sensors – Strain Gauges

R  R (e)

l
R
A
Piezoresistive Pressure Sensor
 Piezoresistivity is a strain dependent resistivity in a single
crystal semiconductor
 When pressure is applied to the diaphragm, it causes a
strain in the resistor
 Resistance change is proportional to this strain, and hence change
in pressure
Resistive Sensors – Photoconductor

R  RD e E
Photoconductive Transducers
 A voltage is impressed on the semiconductor material
 When light strikes the semiconductor material, there is a
decrease in the resistance resulting in an increase in the current
indicated by the meter
 They enjoy a wide range of applications and are useful for
measurement of radiation at all levels
 The schematic diagram of this device is shown below
Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Resistive sensors
 Capacitive sensors
 Inductive sensors
 Active sensors
Capacitive Transducers
 The parallel plate capacitance is given by
A Capacitance is the ability
C   0 r of an element to store
d electric charges in its
 d = distance between plates electric field

 A = overlapping area
 0 = 8.85x10-12 F/m is the absolute permittivity (in vacuum),
 r = relative permittivity (r = 1 for air and r = 3 for plastics)
 Displacement
measurement can be
achieved by varying
distance (d), overlapping
area (A) and the
dielectric constant (r)
Schematic of a capacitive transducer.
Capacitive Transducers – Different Arrangements
Capacitive Transducers – Liquid Level Measurement
 A simple application of
capacitive transducer is for
liquid level measurement
 The dielectric constant
changes between the
electrodes as long as there
is a change in the level of
the liquid

Capacitive transducer for liquid level measurement.

Capacitive Transducers - Linear Displacement
 Variable area capacitance displacement transducer
Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Resistive sensors
 Capacitive sensors
 Inductive sensors
 Active sensors
Inductive Sensors

N2 N2 l
L   o A R
R l  o A
Inductive Sensors
The inductance of a loop or core of
ferromagnetic material on which is wound a coil
of N turns carrying a current i.
N2 N2
L   o A
R l

The presence of the air gap causes a large increase in

circuit reluctance and a corresponding decrease in flux
and inductance.

Thus a small variation in air gap causes a

measurable change in inductance so that we have
the basis of an inductive displacement sensor.
Linear Variable Differential Transformer (LVDT)
 Input voltage (alternating current): One primary coil
 There will be a magnetic coupling between the core and the coils
 Output voltage: Two secondary coils connected in series
 Operates using the principle of variation of mutual
inductance
 The output voltage is
a function of the
core’s displacement
 Widely used for
translating linear
motion into an
electrical signal e nti al tra n s former
r
ati c dia gra m of a diffe
Schem
LVDT - Output Characteristics

Output characteristics of an LVDT

LVDT – Bourdon Tube Pressure Gauge
 LVDT can be combined
with a Bourdon tube
 LVDT converts
displacement into an
electrical signal
 The signal can be
displayed on an electrical
device calibrated in
terms of pressure
Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Active sensors
 Thermoelectric/thermocouple transducers
 Photoelectric transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers
 Hall-effect transudes
 Tachometric generators
Active Sensors - Thermocouple
 Thermoelectric transducers provide electrical signal in
response to change in temperature
 Example: Thermocouple
 Thermocouple: Converts thermal energy into electrical
energy
 Application: To measure temperature
 Contains a pair of dissimilar metal wires joined together at
one end (sensing or hot junction) and terminated at the
other end (reference or cold junction)
 When a temperature difference exists b/n the sensing
junction and the reference, an emf is produced
Induced emf  E   (T1  T2 )   (T12  T22 )  ....   (T1  T2 )
Active Sensors - Thermocouple
Active Sensors – Thermocouple …
 Typical material combinations used as thermocouples

Type Materials Temp. Range Output voltage

(mV)
T Copper-Constantan -2000C to 3500C -5.6 to 17.82
J Iron-Constantan 0 to 7500C 0 to 42.28
E Chromel-Constantan -200 to 9000C -8.82 to 68.78
 To get higher output emf
 Connect two or more Thermocouples in series
K Chromel-Alumel -200 to 12500C -5.97 to 50.63
 For measurement of average temperature
R Thermocouples
 Connect Platinumin parallel
= 13% 0 to 14500C 0 to 16.74
Rhodium = 87%
Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Active sensors
 Thermoelectric transducers
 Photoelectric transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers
 Hall-effect transudes
 Tachometric generators
Photoelectric Transducers
 Versatile tools for detecting radiant energy or light
 Are extensively used in instrumentation. Most knowns are:
1. Photovoltaic cells
 Semiconductor junction devices used to convert radiation energy
into electrical energy
2. Photo diode
 A diode that is normally reverse-biased=> Current is very low
 When a photon is absorbed, electrons are freed so current starts
to flow, i.e., the diode is forward biased
 Has an opening in its case containing a lens which focuses
incident light on the PN junction
3. Photo transistor
 Also operate in reverse-biased
 Responds to light intensity on its lens instead of base current
Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Active sensors
 Thermoelectric transducers
 Photoelectric transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers
 Hall-effect transudes
 Tachometric generators
Piezoelelectric Transducers
 Convert mechanical energy into electrical energy
 If any crystal is subject to an external force F, there will be
an atomic displacement, x
 The displacement is related to the applied force in exactly the
same way as elastic sensor such as spring

 Asymmetric crystalline material such as Quartz, Rochelle

Salt and Barium Tantalite produce an emf when they are
placed under stress
 An externally force, entering the sensor through its
pressure port, applies pressure to the top of a crystal
 This produces an emf across the crystal proportional to the
magnitude of the applied pressure
Piezoelelectric Transducers
 A piezoelectric crystal is placed between two plate
electrodes
 Application of force on such a plate will develop a stress
and a corresponding deformation
 Widely used as inexpensive pressure transducers for
dynamic measurements
 With certain crystals,
this deformation will
produce a potential
difference at the
surface of the crystal
 This effect is called
piezoelectric effect
The piezoelectric effect
Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Active sensors
 Thermoelectric transducers
 Photoelectric transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers
 Hall-effect transudes
 Tachometric generators
Overview
 Introduction
 Classification of sensors
 Passive sensors
 Active sensors
 Thermoelectric transducers
 Photoelectric transducers
 Piezoelectric transducers
 Tachometric generators
Tachometric Generators
 Tachometer – any device used to measure shaft’s rotation
 Tachometric generator
 A machine, when driven by a rotating mechanical force, produces
an electric output proportional to the speed of rotation
 Essentially a small generators

 Tachometric generators connect to the rotating shaft,

whose displacement is to be measured, by, e.g.,
 Direct coupling or
 Means of belts or gears
 They produce an output which primarily relates to speed
 Displacement can be obtained by integrating speed
 Types of Tachometric generators: Generally a.c. or d.c.
Tachometric Generators
 Voltage generated is proportional to rotation of the shaft

D.C. tachometric generator A.C. tachometric generator

Thank You