Network Reference

Model
 Foreword

• In the digital era, various information is presented as data in our life. What is data?

How is data transmitted?

• In this course, we will use the network reference model to understand the "life" of

data.

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 Objectives
▪ Understand the data definition and transmission process.

▪ Understand the concepts and advantages of the network reference model.

▪ Understand common standard protocols.

▪ Understand the data encapsulation and decapsulation processes.

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 Contents

1 A p p l i c a t io ns and
Data
2 N e t w o r k R e f e r e nc e M o d e l a n d S t a n d a r d P r o t oc
ols
3 D a t a C o m m u n ic a t i on P r o c e s
s

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 Origin of the Story - Applications
Applications are used to meet various requirements of people, such as web page access, online gaming,
and online video playback.
Information is generated along with applications. Texts, pictures, and videos are all information
presentation modes.

Application

Information

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 Application Implementation - Data
Data generation In the computer field, data is the carrier of all kinds of information.

Data transmission Data generated by most applications needs to be transmitted between

devices.

Does an application
Data need to complete the
Network entire process from
data generation to
data transmission?

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 Contents

1 A p p l i c a t io ns and
Data
2 N e t w o r k R e f e r e nc e M o d e l a n d S t a n d a r d P r o t oc
ols
3 D a t a C o m m u n ic a t i on P r o c e s
s

Page 6 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.
 OSI Reference Model
7. Application Layer Provides interfaces for applications.

6. Presentation Translates data formats to ensure that the application-layer data of one system can be
Layer identified by the application layer of another system.

5. Session Layer Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between communicating parties.

Establishes, maintains, and cancels an end-to-end data transmission process; controls

4. Transport Layer transmission speeds and adjusts data sequences.

3. Network Layer Defines logical addresses and transfers data from sources to destinations.

Encapsulates packets into frames, transmits frames in P2P or P2MP mode, and
2. Data Link Layer
implements error checking.

Transmits bitstreams over transmission media and defines electrical and physical
1. Physical Layer specifications.

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 TCP/IP Reference Model
The OSI protocol stack is complex, and the TCP and IP protocols are widely used in the industry. Therefore,
the TCP/IP reference model becomes the mainstream reference model of the Internet.

Application Layer
Application Layer Presentation Layer Application Layer

Session Layer

Host-to-Host Layer Transport Layer Transport Layer

Internet Layer Network Layer Network Layer

Network Access Data Link Layer Data Link Layer

Layer Physical Layer Physical Layer

Standard OSI model Equivalent

TCP/IP model TCP/IP model

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 Common TCP/IP Protocols
The TCP/IP protocol stack defines a series of standard protocols.

Telnet FTP TFTP SNMP

Application Layer
HTTP SMTP DNS DHCP

Transport Layer TCP UDP

ICMP IGMP
Network Layer
IP
PPPoE
Data Link Layer
Ethernet PPP
Physical Layer ``````

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 Common Protocol Standardization Organizations
IE Internet Engineering Task Force
T
IETF is a voluntary organization responsible for developing and promoting Internet protocols (especially
protocols that constitute the TCP/IP protocol suite), and releasing new or replacing old protocol standards
through RFCs.
IEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
E
IEEE has formulated about 3 0 % of standards in the electronics, electrical, and computer
science fields worldwide. Those standards include well-known IEEE802.3 (Ethernet) and
IEEE802.11 (Wi-Fi).
ISO International Organization for Standardization
ISO is an international organization that plays an important role in the formulation of
computer network standards, such as the OSI model defined in ISO/IEC 7498-1.

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 Application Layer
The application layer provides interfaces for application software so that applications can use network
services. The application layer protocol designates transport layer protocols and ports.
PDUs transmitted at the network layer are called data.
Application • HTTP 80 (TCP)
Layer Hypertext transfer protocol, which provides web browsing
(Data) services.
• Telnet 23 (TCP)
Transport Layer Remote login protocol, which provides remote management
services.
• FTP 20 and 21 (TCP)
Network Layer File transfer protocol, which provides Internet file resource
sharing services.
Data Link Layer • SMTP 25 (TCP)
Simple mail transfer protocol, which provides Internet email
services.
Physical Layer • TFTP 69 (UDP)
Simple file transfer protocol, which provides simple file
transfer services.

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 Common Application Layer Protocols - FTP
FTP File Transfer Protocol

FTP transfers files from one host to another to implement file download and upload. This
protocol adopts the client/server (C/S) structure.

FTP client FTP server

Network

FTP client: provides commands for local users to FTP server: a device that runs the FTP service.
operate files on a remote server. A user can It provides the access and operation functions
for remote clients, allowing users to access the
install an FTP client program on a PC and set up
FTP server through the FTP client program
a connection with an FTP server to operate files
and access files on the server.
on the server.

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 Common Application Layer Protocols - Telnet
Telnet A standard protocol that provides remote login services on a network.

It provides users with the ability to operate remote devices through local PCs.

Telnet server

Telnet connection A user connects to a Telnet server

AP Router
through the Telnet client program. The
commands entered on the Telnet client
Network are executed on the server, as if the
Telnet client
SW Firewall
commands were entered on the
…. console of the server.
.
Server

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 Common Application Layer Protocols - HTTP
HTT HyperText Transfer Protocol
P
HTTP is one of the most widely used network protocols on the Internet. HTTP was originally designed to
provide a method for publishing and receiving HTML pages.

Network
HTTP client HTTP server

Visits www.huawei.com.

Returns the HTML file of the page.

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 Transport Layer
A transport layer protocol receives data from an application layer protocol, encapsulates the data with
the corresponding transport layer protocol header, and helps establish an end-to-end (port-to-port)
connection.
PDUs transmitted at the transport layer are called segments.

Application
Layer
Transport layer protocols:
Transport
Layer TCP: a connection-oriented reliable
(Segment) protocol defined by IETF in RFC 793.
Network UDP: a simple connectionless
Layer
protocol defined by IETF in RFC 768.
Data Link
Layer

Physical
Layer

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 TCP and UDP - Header Formats
Source port (16) Destination port (16)
Sequence number (32)
Acknowledgement number (32) TCP header
Header Reserved Control Window (16) 20 bytes
length (4) (6) bits (6)

Checksum (16) Urgent (16)

Options
Data (varies)

Source port (16) Destination port (16) UDP header

Length (16) Checksum (16) 8 bytes
Data (if any)

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 TCP and UDP - Port Numbers
Web browser HTTP server

HTTP application Telnet HTTP application Telnet

TCP port 1024 TCP port 1231 TCP port 80 TCP port 23
House number: 1.1.1.1 (IP address) House number: 2.2.2.2 (IP address)

Network
HTTP client HTTP server
Source IP address: Source port number:
1.1.1.1 1024 HTTP
Destinat Destination port
ion IP number: Payload
address: 80
IP header
2.2.2.2 TCP header
Generally, the source port used by a client is randomly allocated, and the destination port is specified by the application of a server.
The system generally selects a source port number that is greater than 1023 and is not being used.
The destination port number is the listening port of the application (service) enabled on the server. For example, the default port
number for HTTP is 80.

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 TCP Connection Setup - Three-Way Handshake
Before sending data, a TCP-based application needs to establish a connection through three-way
handshake.
PC 1 PC 2
1.1.1.1:1024 2.2.2.2:23

IP header TCP header

Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=a Ack=0
Destination=2.2.2.2
(Flags: SYN is set.)

Source = 2.2.2.2 Seq=b Ack=a+1

Destination=1.1.1.1 (Flags: SYN is set, and ACK is set.)

Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=a+1 Ack=b+1

Destination=2.2.2.2
(Flags: ACK is set.)

A TCP connection is established.

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 TCP Sequence Number and Acknowledgment Number
TCP uses the Sequence Number and Acknowledgment Number fields to implement reliable and ordered
data transmission.
PC 1 PC 2
1.1.1.1:1024 2.2.2.2:23
1 A TCP connection is
2 established.
3 4
5 6 IP header TCP header
……
Source = 1.1.1.1 Seq=a+1 Payload
Destination = 2.2.2.2 Length = 12 bytes
Ack=b+1
Source = 2.2.2.2
Seq=b+1 Payload
Destination =
Ack=a+1+12 Length =0 bytes
1.1.1.1
Question: Why does
Data to be sent Source = 1.1.1.1
Seq=a+13 Payload the value of the
Destination = Length = 66 bytes
2.2.2.2 Ack=b+1 Acknowledgment
Source = 2.2.2.2 Number field in the
Seq=b+1 Payload
Destination =
Ack=a+12+66 Length = 0 bytes segment sent by PC1
1.1.1.1
not increase?

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 TCP Window Sliding Mechanism
TCP uses the sliding window mechanism to control the data transmission rate.

PC 1 PC 2

seq=100 win=3 flags=SYN Buffer of the receiver

1
Three- seq=200 Ack=101 win=3 flags=SYN,ACK
way seq=101 Ack=201 win=3 flags=ACK
handshak
e
Data to be sent 2 seq=101 win=3

Data seq=102 win=3

3
transmission
seq=103 win=3
Question: Why does
the Window field of
the segment sent by
Ack=104 win=1 flags=ACK 4 PC1 remain
5 seq=104 win=3 unchanged?

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 TCP Shutdown - Four-Way Handshake
After data transmission is complete, TCP needs to use the four-way handshake mechanism to disconnect the TCP
connection and release system resources.
PC 1 PC 2
1.1.1.1:1024 A TCP connection is 2.2.2.2:23
established.
TCP segment
exchange

IP header TCP header

Sends a
connection Source = 1.1.1.1
Seq=101 Ack=301
1 teardown Destination =
(Flags: FIN is set, and ACK is set.)
2.2.2.2
request with
FIN being set. Source = 2.2.2.2
Destination =
Seq=301 Ack=102
1.1.1.1 (Flags: ACK is set.) Sends ACK. 2
Source = 2.2.2.2 Seq=301 Ack=102
Sends a connection 3
Destination = (Flags: FIN is set, and ACK
1.1.1.1 is set.) teardown request
with FIN being set.
Source = 1.1.1.1
Seq=102 Ack=302
4 Sends ACK. Destination =
2.2.2.2 (Flags: ACK is set.)
The TCP connection
is torn down.

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 Network Layer
The transport layer is responsible for establishing connections between processes on hosts, and the
network layer is responsible for transmitting data from one host to another.
PDUs transmitted at the network layer are called packets.

Application
Layer

Transport Layer

Network • The network layer is also called the Internet layer.

Layer It sends packets from source hosts to destination hosts.
(Packet) • Functions of the network layer:
Provides logical addresses for network devices.
Data Link Layer Routes and forwards data packets.
Common network layer protocols include IPv4, IPv6,
Physical Layer ICMP, and IGMP.

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 Working Process of a Network Layer Protocol
Packet Encapsulation Packet Forwarding Based on Network Layer Addresses
Letter: data sent by an upper layer (for example,
Router1
the transport layer)
G0/0/0

PC1 G0/0/1
PC2
The PC encapsulates the IP header (envelope).
The key information is about source and
destination IP addresses.

Network A

Routing table of Router 1 • The network layer header of a packet sent by a source
device carries the network layer addresses of the source
Outbound and destination devices.
Network
Interface • Each network device (such as a router) that has the
routing function maintains a routing table (like a map of
Network A G0/0/1 the network device).
• After receiving a packet, the network device reads the
Envelope: IP packet header … … network layer destination address of the packet, searches
Sender: source IP address the routing table for the matching entry of the destination
… … address, and forwards the packet according to the
Receiver: destination IP address instruction of the matching entry.

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 Data Link Layer
The data link layer is located between the network layer and the physical layer and provides services for protocols
such as IP and IPv6 at the network layer. PDUs transmitted at the data link layer are called frames.
Ethernet is the most common data link layer protocol.

Application
Layer

Transport Layer

Network Layer

The data link layer is located between the network layer and the physical layer.
Data Link • The data link layer provides intra-segment communication for the
Layer network layer.
(Frame) • The functions of the data link layer include framing, physical addressing,
and error control.
Physical Layer • Common data link layer protocols include Ethernet, PPPoE, and PPP.

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 Ethernet and Source MAC Addresses
Ethernet Definition Ethernet Source MAC Addresses

Switch A I have a MAC

address when I Name: Host A
leave the factory.
Switch B MAC address/Ethernet
address/physical address:
Host A Host B
Host A

Network A
Host C • A media access control (MAC) address uniquely identifies a NIC on a
network. Each NIC requires and has a unique M AC address.
Host D • MAC addresses are used to locate specific physical devices in an IP
network segment.
• Ethernet is a broadcast multiple access protocol that works at the • A device that works at the data link layer, such as an Ethernet switch,
data link layer protocol. maintains a M AC address table to guide data frame forwarding.
• The network interfaces of PCs comply with the Ethernet standard.
• Generally, a broadcast domain corresponds to an IP network
segment.

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 AR
A P
Address Resolution Protocol
R
Discovers the MAC address associated with a given IP address.

ARP request
Destination IP address: 192.168.1.2
Destination MAC address: ?
Host A Host B
192.168.1 192.168.1.2/24
.1/24 ARP reply 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F
3C-52-82- Source IP address: 192.168.1.2
49-7E-9D Source MAC address: 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F

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 ARP Implementation Principles (1)
Host 1 checks Host 1 Host 2
cached ARP entries.
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2
Host 1 sends an ARP
request.
IP 1 ： 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2 ： 192.168.1.2/24
Host 2 adds an ARP MAC 1 ： 3C-52-82-49-7E- MAC 2 ： 48-A4-72-1C-8F-
entry. 9D 4F

Host 2 sends an ARP

Step 1:
reply.
Host 1>arp -a • Before sending a datagram, a device searches its ARP
Internet Address Physical Address Type table for the destination M AC address of the datagram.
Host 1 adds an ARP
entry. • If the destination MAC address exists in the ARP table, the
device encapsulates the M AC address in the frame and
The ARP cache sends out the frame. If the destination MAC address does
table is empty. not exist in the ARP table, the device sends an ARP
request to discover the MAC address.

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 ARP Implementation Principles (2)
Host 1 checks cached Host 1 Host 2
ARP entries.
3 GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2
Host 1 sends an ARP
request.
IP 1 ： 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2 ： 192.168.1.2/24
Host 2 adds an ARP MAC 1 ： 3C-52-82-49-7E- MAC 2 ： 48-A4-72-1C-8F-
entry. 9D 4F
Step 2 ：
• Host 1 sends an ARP request to
Host 2 sends an ARP
2 Eth_II ARP Request FCS discover the MAC address of Host 2.
reply.
• The destination MAC address in the
Host 1 adds an ARP ARP request is 0 because the
entry.
Destination MAC destination MAC address is unknown.
Operation type: ARP request
address:
MAC address of the sender: MAC 1
FF-FF-FF-FF-FF-FF IP address of the sender: IP 1 Step 3 ：
Source MAC address: Destination MAC address: • The ARP request message is a broadcast
MAC 1 00-00-00-00-00-00 data frame. After receiving the ARP
Destination IP address: IP 2 request message, the switch floods it.

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 ARP Implementation Principles (3)
Host 1 checks cached Host 1 Host 2
ARP entries.
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2
Host 1 sends an ARP
request.
IP 1 ： 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2 ： 192.168.1.2/24
Host 2 adds an ARP MAC 1 ： 3C-52-82-49-7E- MAC 2 ： 48-A4-72-1C-8F-
entry. 9D 4F
4
Step 4:
Host 2 sends an ARP
reply. • After receiving the ARP request message, each Host 2>arp -a
host checks whether it is the destination of the Internet Address Physical Address Type
message based on the carried destination IP
Host 1 adds an ARP
address.
192.168.1.1 3C-52-82-49-7E-9D Dynamic
entry.
• Host 2 finds that it is the destination of the
message and then records the mapping between
the sender's M A C and IP addresses in its ARP table.

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 ARP Implementation Principles (4)
Host 1 checks Host 1 Host 2
cached ARP entries.
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2
6
Host 1 sends an ARP
request.
IP 1 ： 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2 ： 192.168.1.2/24
Host 2 adds an ARP MAC 1 ： 3C-52-82-49-7E- MAC 2 ： 48-A4-72-1C-8F-
entry. 9D 4F
5
Host 2 sends an ARP Step 5:
reply. • Host 2 sends an ARP reply to Host 1. Eth_II ARP Reply FCS
• In this step, Host 2 has discovered the MAC address
Host 1 adds an ARP
entry.
of Host 1, so the ARP reply is a unicast data frame.
Destination MAC address: Operation type: ARP
MAC-1
reply Sender's MAC address: MAC 2
Source MAC address: Sender's IP address: IP 2
Step 6: MAC 2
Receiver's MAC address: MAC 1
• After receiving the unicast data frame, the switch Receiver's IP address: IP 1
forwards the frame.

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 ARP Implementation Principles (5)
Host 1 checks Host 1 Host 2
cached ARP entries.
GE 0/0/1 GE 0/0/2
Host 1 sends an ARP
request.
IP 1 ： 192.168.1.1/24 IP 2 ： 192.168.1.2/24
Host 2 adds an ARP MAC 1 ： 3C-52-82-49-7E- MAC 2 ： 48-A4-72-1C-8F-
entry. 9D 4F
7 Step 7:
Host 2 sends an ARP
reply. Host 1>arp -a
• After receiving the ARP reply message, Host 1
Internet Address Physical Address Type checks whether it is the destination of the
Host 1 adds an ARP 192.168.1.2 48-A4-72-1C-8F-4F message based on the carried destination IP
entry. Dynamic address.
• If so, Host 1 records the carried sender's MAC
and IP addresses in its ARP table.

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 Physical Layer
After data arrives at the physical layer, the physical layer converts a digital signal into an optical signal, an electrical
signal, or an electromagnetic wave signal based on the physical media.
PDUs transmitted at the physical layer are called bitstreams.

Application
Layer

Transport Layer

Network Layer

The physical layer is at the bottom of the model.

Data Link Layer • This layer transmits bitstreams on media.
• It standardizes physical features such as cables, pins, voltages, and
Physical interfaces.
Layer • Common transmission media include twisted pairs, optical fibers,
(Bitstream) and electromagnetic waves.

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 Common Transmission Media

Fiber Optical module

RJ45 connector
Twisted pair

Data transmission through twisted pairs Data transmission through optical fibers
1 2
4 3

Synchronous/asynchronous serial cable: V.24 on

the left and V.35 on the right PAD Mobile phone Laptop Wireless router

Data transmission between terminal

Data transmission through serial cables and wireless routers through wireless
signals

Page 35 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Contents

1 A p p l i c a t io ns and
Data
2 N e t w o r k R e f e r e nc e M o d e l a n d S t a n d a r d P r o t oc
ols
3 D a t a C o m m u n ic a t i on P r o c e s
s

Page 36 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Data Encapsulation on the Sender
Application
DATA Layer Data
www.huawei.com

TCP Header DATA Transport Layer Segment

Network Packet
IP Header Payload
Layer

Data Link Layer Frame

Eth Header Payload FCS

… Physical Layer Bit

…
0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 … Transmission
… Media

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 Data Transmission on the Intermediate Network
Encapsulated data is transmitted on the network.

Data

Data
Application Application
Layer Layer
Transport Layer Transport Layer
Network Layer Network Layer
Network Layer
Data Link Layer Data Link Layer
Data Link Layer
Physical Layer Data Link Layer Physical Layer
Physical Layer
Physical Layer

Page 39 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Data Decapsulation on the Receiver
Application Data
DATA
Layer
Web server

Transport Layer DATA Segment

Network Layer Payload Packet

Data Link Layer Payload Frame

Physical Layer … Bit

…
Transmission 0 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 …
Media …

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 Summary
▫ Both the OSI reference model and the TCP/IP reference model adopt the layered
design concept.
◦ Clear division of functions and boundaries between layers facilitates the
development,
design, and troubleshooting of each component.
◦ The functions of each layer can be defined to impel industry standardization.
◦ Interfaces can be provided to enable communication between hardware and software on
various networks, improving compatibility.

▫ Data generation and transmission require collaboration between modules.

Meanwhile, each module must fulfill its own responsibilities.

Page 41 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Quiz
What are the benefits of the layered model?

• Clear division of functions and boundaries between layers facilitates the development,

design, and troubleshooting of each component.

• The functions of each layer can be defined to impel industry standardization.

• Interfaces can be provided to enable communication between hardware and software on

various networks, improving compatibility.

Page 42 Copyright © 2020 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.
 Quiz
What are the common protocols at the application layer, transport layer,
network layer, and data link layer?
• Application layer: HTTP, FTP, Telnet, and so on

• Transport layer: UDP and TCP

• Network layer: IP, ICMP, and so on

• Data link layer: Ethernet, PPP, PPPoE, and so on

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 谢谢
www.huawei.com

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