Chapter 5: Looping

Starting Out with C++

Early Objects
Eighth Edition

by Tony Gaddis, Judy Walters,

and Godfrey Muganda

Copyright © 2014, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley

 Topics
5.1 Introduction to Loops: The while Loop
5.2 Using the while loop for Input Validation
5.3 The Increment and Decrement Operators
5.4 Counters
5.5 The do-while loop
5.6 The for loop
5.7 Keeping a Running Total

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 Topics (continued)

5.8 Sentinels
5.9 Deciding Which Loop to Use
5.10 Nested Loops
5.11 Breaking Out of a Loop
5.12 Using Files for Data Storage
5.13 Creating Good Test Data

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 5.1 Introduction to Loops:
The while Loop
• Loop: part of program that may execute > 1
time (i.e., it repeats)
• while loop format:
while (condition)
{ statement(s); No ; here
}
• The {} can be omitted if there is only one
statement in the body of the loop

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 How the while Loop Works
while (condition)
{ statement(s);
}
condition is evaluated
– if it is true, the statement(s) are executed,
and then condition is evaluated again
– if it is false, the loop is exited

An iteration is an execution of the loop body

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 while Loop Flow of Control

false
condition

true

statement(s)

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 while Loop Example
int val = 5;
while (val >= 0)
{ cout << val << " ";
val = val - 1;
}
• produces output:
5 4 3 2 1 0

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 while Loop is a Pretest Loop

• while is a pretest loop (condition is evaluated

before the loop executes)

• If the condition is initially false, the statement(s) in

the body of the loop are never executed

• If the condition is initially true, the statement(s) in

the body will continue to be executed until the
condition becomes false

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 Exiting the Loop

• The loop must contain code to allow

condition to eventually become false
so the loop can be exited
• Otherwise, you have an infinite loop (i.e., a
loop that does not stop)
• Example infinite loop:
x = 5;
while (x > 0) // infinite loop because
cout << x; // x is always > 0
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 Common Loop Errors
• Don’t put ; immediately after (condition)
• Don’t forget the { } :
int numEntries = 1;
while (numEntries <=3)
cout << "Still working … ";
numEntries++; // not in the loop body

• Don’t use = when you mean to use ==

while (numEntries = 3) // always true
{
cout << "Still working … ";
numEntries++;
}
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 while Loop Programming Style
• Loop body statements should be indented

• Align { and } with the loop header and place

them on lines by themselves

Note: The conventions above make the

program more understandable by someone
who is reading it. They have no effect on
how the program compiles or executes.

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 5.2 Using the while Loop for Input
Validation
Loops are an appropriate structure for
validating user input data
1. Prompt for and read in the data.
2. Use a while loop to test if data is valid.
3. Enter the loop only if data is not valid.
4. Inside the loop, display error message and
prompt the user to re-enter the data.
5. The loop will not be exited until the user
enters valid data.
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 Input Validation Loop Example

cout << "Enter a number (1-100) and"

<< " I will guess it. ";
cin >> number;
while (number < 1 || number > 100)
{ cout << "Number must be between 1 and 100."
<< " Re-enter your number. ";
cin >> number;
}
// Code to use the valid number goes here.

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 5.3 The Increment and Decrement
Operators
• Increment – increase value in variable
++ adds one to a variable
val++; is the same as val = val + 1;

• Decrement – reduce value in variable

-- subtracts one from a variable
val--; is the same as val = val – 1;

• can be used in prefix mode (before) or

postfix mode (after) a variable
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 Prefix Mode

• ++val and --val increment or decrement

the variable, then return the new value of
the variable.
• It is this returned new value of the variable
that is used in any other operations within
the same statement

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 Prefix Mode Example
int x = 1, y = 1;

x = ++y; // y is incremented to 2
// Then 2 is assigned to x
cout << x
<< " " << y; // Displays 2 2

x = --y; // y is decremented to 1
// Then 1 is assigned to x
cout << x
<< " " << y; // Displays 1 1

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 Postfix Mode

• val++ and val-- return the old value of

the variable, then increment or decrement
the variable
• It is this returned old value of the variable
that is used in any other operations within
the same statement

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 Postfix Mode Example
int x = 1, y = 1;

x = y++; // y++ returns a 1

// The 1 is assigned to x
// and y is incremented to 2
cout << x
<< " " << y; // Displays 1 2

x = y--; // y-- returns a 2

// The 2 is assigned to x
// and y is decremented to 1
cout << x
<< " " << y; // Displays 2 1

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 Increment & Decrement Notes

• Can be used in arithmetic expressions

result = num1++ + --num2;
• Must be applied to something that has a
location in memory. Cannot have
result = (num1 + num2)++; // Illegal
• Can be used in relational expressions
if (++num > limit)
• Pre- and post-operations will cause different
comparisons
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 5.4 Counters
• Counter: variable that is incremented or
decremented each time a loop repeats
• Can be used to control execution of the
loop (loop control variable)
• Must be initialized before entering loop
• May be incremented/decremented either
inside the loop or in the loop test
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 Letting the User Control the Loop

• Program can be written so that user input

determines loop repetition
• Can be used when program processes a list
of items, and user knows the number of
items
• User is prompted before loop. Their input is
used to control number of repetitions
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 User Controls the Loop Example
int num, limit;
cout << "Table of squares\n";
cout << "How high to go? ";
cin >> limit;
cout << "\n\nnumber square\n";
num = 1;
while (num <= limit)
{ cout << setw(5) << num << setw(6)
<< num*num << endl;
num++;
}
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 5.5 The do-while Loop

• do-while: a post test loop (condition

is evaluated after the loop executes)
• Format:
do
{ 1 or more statements;
} while (condition);
Notice the
required ;

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 do-while Flow of Control

statement(s)

true
condition

false

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 do-while Loop Notes

• Loop always executes at least once

• Execution continues as long as
condition is true; the loop is exited
when condition becomes false
• { } are required, even if the body contains
a single statement
• ; after (condition) is also required
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 do-while and Menu-Driven Programs

• do-while can be used in a menu-driven

program to bring the user back to the
menu to make another choice
• To simplify the processing of user input,
use the toupper (‘to upper’) or tolower
(to lower’) function

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 Menu-Driven Program Example

do {
// code to display menu
// and perform actions
cout << "Another choice? (Y/N) ";
} while (choice =='Y'||choice =='y');

The condition could be written as

(toupper(choice) == 'Y');
or as
(tolower(choice) == 'y');
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 5.6 The for Loop
• Pretest loop that executes zero or more times
• Useful for counter-controlled loop
Required ;
• Format:
for( initialization; test; update )
{ 1 or more statements;
}
No ; goes
here

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 for Loop Mechanics

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 for Loop Flow of Control

initialization
code

update
code
false
test

true

statement(s)

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 for Loop Example

int sum = 0, num;

for (num = 1; num <= 10; num++)
sum += num;
cout << "Sum of numbers 1 – 10 is "
<< sum << endl;

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 for Loop Notes

• If test is false the first time it is evaluated,

the body of the loop will not be executed
• The update expression can increment or
decrement by any amount
• Variables used in the initialization section
should not be modified in the body of the
loop

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 for Loop Modifications

• Can define variables in initialization code

– Their scope is the for loop
• Initialization and update code can contain
more than one statement
– Separate the statements with commas
• Example:
for (int sum = 0, num = 1; num <= 10; num++)
sum += num;

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 More for Loop Modifications
(These are NOT Recommended)
• Can omit initialization if already done
int sum = 0, num = 1;
for (; num <= 10; num++)
sum += num;
• Can omit update if done in loop
for (sum = 0, num = 1; num <= 10;)
sum += num++;
• Can omit test – may cause an infinite loop
for (sum = 0, num = 1; ; num++)
sum += num;
• Can omit loop body if all work is done in header
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 5.7 Keeping a Running Total

• running total: accumulated sum of numbers

from each repetition of loop
• accumulator: variable that holds running total
int sum = 0, num = 1; // sum is the
while (num <= 10) // accumulator
{ sum += num;
num++;
}
cout << "Sum of numbers 1 – 10 is "
<< sum << endl;
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 5.8 Sentinels

• sentinel: value in a list of values that

indicates end of the list
• Special value that cannot be confused with
a valid value, e.g., -999 for a test score
• Used to terminate input when user may not
know how many values will be entered

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 Sentinel Example

int total = 0;
cout << "Enter points earned "
<< "(or -1 to quit): ";
cin >> points;
while (points != -1) // -1 is the sentinel
{
total += points;
cout << "Enter points earned: ";
cin >> points;
}
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 5.9 Deciding Which Loop to Use

• while: pretest loop (loop body may not

be executed at all)
• do-while: post test loop (loop body will
always be executed at least once)
• for: pretest loop (loop body may not be
executed at all); has initialization and
update code; is useful with counters or if
precise number of repetitions is known
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 5.10 Nested Loops

• A nested loop is a loop inside the body of

another loop
• Example:
outer loop
for (row = 1; row <= 3; row++)
{ inner loop
for (col = 1; col <= 3; col++)
{
cout << row * col << endl;
}
}
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 Notes on Nested Loops
• Inner loop goes through all its repetitions
for each repetition of outer loop
• Inner loop repetitions complete sooner than
outer loop
• Total number of repetitions for inner loop is
product of number of repetitions of the two
loops. In previous example, inner loop
repeats 9 times
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 5.11 Breaking Out of a Loop

• Can use break to terminate execution of

a loop
• Use sparingly if at all – makes code harder
to understand
• When used in an inner loop, terminates
that loop only and returns to the outer loop

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 The continue Statement
• Can use continue to go to end of loop
and prepare for next repetition
– while and do-while loops go to test and
repeat the loop if test condition is true
– for loop goes to update step, then tests, and
repeats loop if test condition is true
• Use sparingly – like break, can make
program logic hard to follow

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 5.12 Using Files for Data Storage

• We can use a file instead of monitor screen

for program output
• Files are stored on secondary storage media,
such as disk
• Files allow data to be retained between
program executions
• We can later use the file instead of a
keyboard for program input
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 File Types
• Text file – contains information encoded as
text, such as letters, digits, and punctuation.
Can be viewed with a text editor such as
Notepad.
• Binary file – contains binary (0s and 1s)
information that has not been encoded as
text. It cannot be viewed with a text editor.

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 File Access – Ways to Use
the Data in a File
• Sequential access – read the 1st piece of
data, read the 2nd piece of data, …, read the
last piece of data. To access the n-th piece
of data, you have to retrieve the preceding n
pieces first.
• Random (direct) access – retrieve any piece
of data directly, without the need to retrieve
preceding data items.

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 What is Needed to Use Files
1. Include the fstream header file
2. Define a file stream object
• ifstream for input from a file
ifstream inFile;
• ofstream for output to a file
ofstream outFile;

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 Open the File

3. Open the file

• Use the open member function
inFile.open("inventory.dat");
outFile.open("report.txt");
• Filename may include drive, path info.
• Output file will be created if necessary;
existing output file will be erased first
• Input file must exist for open to work
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 Use the File

4. Use the file

• Can use output file object and << to send
data to a file
outFile << "Inventory report";
• Can use input file object and >> to copy
data from file to variables
inFile >> partNum;
inFile >> qtyInStock >> qtyOnOrder;
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 Close the File
5. Close the file
• Use the close member function
inFile.close();
outFile.close();
Can use a file instead of keyboard for program input
• Don’t wait for operating system to close
files at program end
– There may be limit on number of open files
– There may be buffered output data waiting
to be sent to a file that could be lost
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 Input File – the Read Position
• Read Position – location of the next piece
of data in an input file

• Initially set to the first byte in the file

• Advances for each data item that is read.

Successive reads will retrieve successive
data items.

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 Using Loops to Process Files

• A loop can be used to read data from or

write data to a file
• It is not necessary to know how much data
is in the file or will be written to the file
• Several methods exist to test for the end of
the file

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 Using the >> Operator to Test for End of
File (EOF) on an Input File

• The stream extraction operator (>>) returns a

true or false value indicating if a read is
successful
• This can be tested to find the end of file since
the read “fails” when there is no more data
• Example:
while (inFile >> score)
sum += score;

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 File Open Errors
• An error will occur if an attempt to open a file for input fails:
– File does not exist
– Filename is misspelled
– File exists, but is in a different place
• The file stream object is set to true if the open operation
succeeded. It can be tested to see if the file can be used:
if (inFile)
{
// process data from file
} else
cout << "Error on file open\n";

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 User-Specified Filenames
• Program can prompt user to enter the names of
input and/or output files. This makes the
program more versatile.
• Filenames can be read into string objects. The
C-string representation of the string object can
then be passed to the open function:
cout << "Which input file? ";
cin >> inputFileName;
inFile.open(inputFileName.c_str());

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 5.13 Creating Good Test Data
• When testing a program, the quality of the
test data is more important than the
quantity.
• Test data should show how different parts
of the program execute
See pr5-09.cpp

• Test data should evaluate how program

handles:
– normal data
– data that is at the limits the valid range
– invalid data
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 Chapter 5: Looping

Starting Out with C++

Early Objects
Eighth Edition

by Tony Gaddis, Judy Walters,

and Godfrey Muganda

Copyright © 2014, 2008 Pearson Education, Inc. Publishing as Pearson Addison-Wesley