The Digestive System

Understanding the body's processing and nutrient absorption system

 Functions of the Digestive System
1. Ingestion = “taking inside”

2. Breakdown of food - “Digestion”

a. Mechanical Digestion = “physical movement”
b. Chemical Digestion = “digestive enzymes”

3. Absorb nutrients = movement of nutrients from the GI tract to blood or

lymph

4. Release of waste = “elimination”

 Histology of the Digestive System
2 groups of DS organs
1. Digestive Tract or Gastrointestinal Tract
- “muscular tube”
- “digestion and absorption of food”

Composition
- oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small and
large intestine, anus
 2. Accessory Digestive Organs
- “breakdown of foodstuffs”

Composition
- teeth, tongue, gallbladder, salivary glands, liver,
pancreas
Tunics
3 major functions
1. Mucus Secretion
2. End products of digestion absorption
3. Infectious disease protection

Mucus Secretion
- protect digestive organs from digesting themselves
 Stomach and small intestine mucosa
- contains:
a. enzyme-secreting hormones
b. hormone-secreting hormones (endo-digestive
hormones)

4 Tunics
1. Mucosa
- innermost layer lining the lumen of alimentary
canal
 Composition
- mucous epithelium, lamina propria, muscularis
mucosae

2. Submucosa
- connective tissue layer

Composition
- submucosal plexus (part of enteric plexus), blood
vessels, small glands
 3. Muscularis
- has inner layer of circular smooth muscle and
outer layer of longitudinal smooth muscle

Myenteric plexus
- between 2 muscle layers

4. Serosa or Adventitia
- outer layer of digestive tract
Enteric Nervous System
- hass nerve plexuses within wall of DT
- serves DT and regulates its activities

2 major intrinsic nerve plexuses

1. Submucosal nerve plexus
- regulates glands and smooth muscle in mucosa
2. Myenteric nerve plexus
- major nerve supply controlling the GIT mobility
 3 major types of enteric neurons
1. Sensory neurons
- detect changes in chemical composition of DT

2. Motor neurons
- stimulate or inhibit smooth muscle contraction and
glandular secretion

3. Interneurons
- connect sensory to neurons
 Peritoneum
Peritoneum
- serous membrane lining the abdominopelvic cavities and organs

Mesenteries
- peritoneum extending from body wall to many abdominopelvic
orgnas

Retroperitoneal organs
- “behind the peritoneum”
 Oral Cavity
Oral Cavity or mouth
- has oral oriface as anterior opening and oropharynx
posteriorly

Composition
- lips, cheeks, palate, tongue
- accessory glands (salivary glands)
- accessory organs (teeth and tongue)
 2 regional divisions
1. Vestibule
- space between lips or cheeks and alveolar
processes that contains teeth

2. Oral cavity proper

- medial to alveolar processes

 Oral cavity is able to withstand abrasions because of

the stratified squamous epithelium of the mouth
Lips and Cheeks
- “facial expression, mastication, speech

Palate
- “roof of mouth”

2 types of palate
1. Hard Palate
- assists tongue in chewing
 2. Soft palate
- mobile fold mostly formed of skeletal muscles
- closes nasopharynx during swallowing

Uvula - projection from soft palate

Muscles within the oral cavity

1.Frontalis or Occipitofrontalis
- surprise
2.Procerus
- distaste

3.Levator anguli oris

- sneering

4.Orbicularis oris
- kissing

5.Mentalis
- pouting

6.Platysma
- egad muscle
7.Temporalis
- A muscle of mastication (chewing)

8.Internal pterygoid or medial pterygoid

- A major elevator of the jaw is a square-shaped masticatory
muscle.

9.Masseter
- A muscle which runs through the rear part of the cheek.

10.External pterygoid or lateral pterygoid

- opening of jaw
Tongue
- occupies floor of mouth and fills it when closed

Functions
1. Gripping and Repositioning food while chewing
2. Mixing food with saliva and forms bolus
3. Initiation of food and swallowing

Frenulum or “mylohyoid”
- secures tongue to floor of mouth
 Teeth
- “tear and grind”
- 20 deciduous teeth or milk teeth (6 months and 24 months
of age) then become 32 permanent teeth (5 years to 11 years)

Natal teeth - teeth present at birth

4 types of teeth
1. Incisors
a. Central Incisor (erupts at 6-8 months; lost at 5-7
years)
 b. Lateral Incisor (erupts at 8-11 months; lost at 6-8
years

2. Canines (erupts at 16-20 motnhs; lost at 8-11

years)

3. Molars
a. First molar (erupts at 10-16 months; lost at 9-11
years
b.Second molar (erupts at 20-24 months; lost at 9-
22 years)
 Composition of teeth
1. Crown
- exposed part
- above gingiva or gum
- has dentin covered by enamel (hardest substance in the
body)

2. Body
- embedded in jawbone
- has dentin covered by cementum

3. Peridontal ligaments
- hold teeth in alveoli
Salivary glands
- produce and secrete saliva
- produce serous and mucous secretions

3 pairs of large salivary glands

1. parotid
2. Submandibular
3. Sublingual
 Saliva
- 1 liter per day

Composition
- 97-99.5% pf water and slightly acidic solution

Control of Salivation
- “parasympathetic division of autonomic nervous
system

Sialorrhea - excessive drooling

 Pharynx and Esophagus
Pharynx
- “nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngophayrnx”

Esophagus
- connects pharynx to stomach
 Swallowing or Deglutition
 Voluntary phase
- bolus of food from oral cavity to pharynx moved by
tongue

 Pharyngeal phase
- reflex caused by stimulation of stretch in pharynx

 Esophageal phase
- reflex initiated by stimulation of stretch receptors in
esophagus
 Peristalsis
Peristalsis - wave like contractions in DT

2 waves involved
1. Wave of circular smooth muscle relaxation
2. Wave of circular smooth muscle contraction
 Anatomy and Histology of Stomach
Stomach
- “storage tank”

2 openings
1. Gastroesophageal - “esophagus”
2. Pyloric orifice - “duodenum”
 Major Regions of Stomach
1. Cardiac part
2. Fundus
3. Body
4. Pyloric part

 Lateral side of stomach consist of greater and lesser

curvatures
 Wall of Stomach composition
1. External Serosa
2. Muscle layer
3. Submucosa
4. Simple columnar epithelium

 Empty stomach - 50 mL (volume)

Rugae - folds in empty stomach

4 secretory cell glands
1. Mucous neck - “acid mucous”
2. Parietal cells - “HCI and Intrinsic factor”
3. Chief cells - “pepsinogen”
4. Endocrine cells - “regulatory hormones”
 Secretions of Stomach
Chyme - ingested food mixed with gastric juice
Gastric Juice - mucous protecting stomach lining

4 gastric juices
1. Pepsinogen - “proteins”
2. Hydrochloric Acid - “pepsin activity and kills
microorganisms
3. Intrinsic factor - “Vit. B12 absorption
4. Gastrin and Histamine - “stomach secretions”
 Regulation of Stomach Secretion
3 phases
1. Cephalic phase
- “sight, smell, taste, thought of food”
- medulla stimulate hydrochloric acid, pepsinogen,
gastrin, histamine secretion

2. Gastric phase
- distention of stomach stimulating gastrin secretion
andn activates CNS and local refleces promoting secretion
 3. Gastrointestinal phase
- acid chyme enters duodenum stimulating neuronal
reflexes and secretion hormones
 Movements of Stomach
Waves - form chyme

Peristaltic waves - chyme to duodenum

Burborygmus - hunger contractions

Reverse peristalsis - vomiting

 Small Intestine
Small intestine
- major digestive organ
- where digestion is completed and absorption starts

3 subdivisions
1. Duodenum - 10 inches long
2. Jejenum - 8 inches long
3. Ileum - 12 inches long
 Anatomy and Histology of Small Intestines
 600 folds

Circular folds - deep folds of mucosa and submucosa

Villi - fingerlike extensions of mucosa

Microvilli - tiny projections of absorptive mucosal cells

plasma membranes
Intestinal glands - pits between villi and mucosa

Composition of the mucosa’s epithelium

1. Absorptive cells
- “digestive enzymes”

2. Goblet cells
- “protective mucus”

3. Granular cells or Paneth Cells

- intestinal epithelium protection from bacteria
4. Endocrine cells
- “regulatory hormones”

Peyer’s Patches
- aggregated lymphoid follicles found in submucosa
 Movement of Small Intestine
Segmental Contractions
- mix intestinal contents

Peristaltic Contractions
- move materials distally
 Anatomy and Histology of Liver
4 enternal lobes of liver
1. Right
2. Left
3. Caudate
4. Quadrate

 Internally, liver is divided into 8 segments

Portal triads composition
1. Hepatic duct
- “bile toward duodenum”

2. Hepatic artery
- “oxygen rich bllod to liver”

3. Hepatic portal vein

- venous blood with nutrients from digestive viscera
Sinusoids
- enlarged spaces filled with blood and lined with
endothelium and hepatic phagocytic cells

Kupffer cells
- hepatic macrophages in liver sinusoids
 Functions of Liver
1. Produces bile

2. Stores and processes nutrients

3. Hepatic phagocytic cell phagocytize RBCs

4. Produces blood components

 Blood Flow through Liver
 Branches of hepatic artery and hepatic portal vein in
portal triads empty in hepatic sinusoids

 Hepatic sinusoids empty in central veins, join to form

hepatic veins, leave the liver
 Bile Transport
 Bile canaliculi collect bile

 Small hepatic ducts converge

 Left and right hepatic ducts joins

 Cystic duct from gallbladder joins

 Coomon bile duct and pancreatic duct join

 Gallbladder and Bile
Gallbladder
- small sac on inferior surface of liver
- stores and concentrates bile

Bile
- yellow green digestive fluid produced by the liver
 Anatomy and Histology of Pancreas
Location
- head encircled by duodenum
- tail sits against spleen

Exocrine function
- secretes pancreatic juice that breaksdown all categories pf
foodstuff
 Pancreatic Secretions
Aqueous component
- produced by small pancreatic ducts

Enzymatic component
- produced by acini
 Regulation of Bile Secretion and Release
Secretin
- release of aqueous component

Cholecystokinin
- secretion of enzymatic component and relaxation of sphincters

Parasympathetic
- increases stimulation

Sympathetic
- decreases stimulation
 Anatomy and Histology of Large Intestine
Large Intestine
- absorbs water
- eliminate waste

Subdivisions
1. Cecum, Appendix, Colon, Rectum, Anal Canal
3 unique features
1. Teniae coli
2. Haustra
3. Epiploic appendages
 Digestion, Absorption, Transport
Digestion
- “mechanical and chemical”
- breakdown of organic molecules into their component
parts

Absorption
- uptake of DT content

Transport
- distribution of nutrients throughout the body
 Chemical Digestion
Carbohydrate digestion
- starts at mouth
- where simple sugars are broken down

Protein digestion
- broken down into amino acids
- starts at stomach
Lipid digestion
- occurs at small intestine

Nucleic acids
- broken down by pancreatic nucleases in small intestine
 Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates
- “starches, glycogen, sucrose, lactose, glucose,
and fructose”
 Lipids
Lipids
- “triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids,
and fat-soluble vitamins”

Emulsification
- transformation of large lipid droplets into smaller droplets
 Proteins
Proteins
- pepsin in the stomach breaks proteins into smaller
polypeptide chain

Amino acids
- used as building blocks or for ene
 Water and Ions
 9 liters of water enters the digestive tract each day
 Effects of Aging on the Digestive System
 The mucous layer, the connective tissue,
the muscles, and the secretions all tend
to decrease as a person ages

 These changes make an older person

more open to infections and toxi