PERCEPTION

What are illusions?

◦ Illusions are perceptual experiences that deviate from reality, causing us to perceive something differently from how it
actually is.
◦ They occur when our sensory systems, particularly vision but also other senses like hearing and touch, misinterpret or
distort sensory information.
◦ Illusions can manifest in various forms, such as optical illusions (visual), auditory illusions (sound), tactile illusions
(touch), and even cognitive illusions (thinking).
◦ These phenomena challenge our understanding of perception and the way our brains interpret sensory input, often
leading to fascinating insights into the workings of the human mind.
Visual Illusions:
◦ Tricks our eyes play, making lines appear longer or colours different.
◦ Examples: geometric illusions (e.g., Müller-Lyer), colour illusions (e.g., afterimages), and size illusions (e.g., Ponzo).
Auditory Illusions:
◦ Tricks our ears play, making us hear sounds differently.
◦ Examples: Shepard tone illusion (endless rising or falling); Tritone Paradox (two tones heard as both ascending and
descending).
Tactile Illusions:
◦ Tricks our sense of touch plays, creating false sensations.
◦ Examples: tactile rabbit illusion (moving object sensation); thermal grill illusion (feeling of burning heat).
Gustatory and Olfactory Illusions:
◦ Tricks our sense of taste and smell play, causing perceived flavours or scents without actual stimuli.
◦ Examples are rare but may include taste or smell perception without a real stimulus.
Cognitive Illusions:
◦ Tricks our thinking processes play, leading to errors in reasoning.
◦ Examples: confirmation bias (seeking confirming information only); framing effect (decisions influenced by
presentation).
 Visual Illusions
◦ Müller-Lyer illusion: Lines of equal length appear unequal due to arrowheads pointing inward or outward.
◦ Ponzo illusion: Two identical lines appear to be different lengths due to surrounding context.
◦ Rubin's vase: An image that can be interpreted as either a vase or two faces in profile.
 Auditory Illusions

◦ Shepard tone illusion: Is an auditory illusion that creates the perception of a continuously rising or falling pitch that seems
to never reach an endpoint. It's created by superimposing multiple tones separated by octaves, each fading in as the
previous one fades out.

◦ The McGurk effect: Is a perceptual phenomenon in which the auditory perception of a speech sound is influenced by
visual information. It occurs when an individual hears one sound (e.g., a specific syllable) while watching a person's mouth
produce a different sound (e.g., a different syllable). The brain integrates both auditory and visual information, often
resulting in the perception of a third sound that is a combination of the two conflicting inputs. For example, hearing "ba"
while watching someone say "ga" might result in perceiving "da.“

◦ The Tritone Paradox: Is an auditory illusion where a pair of tones, when played in succession, are perceived as both
ascending and descending in pitch simultaneously. This paradox arises from the combination of two tones that are separated
by a musical interval known as a tritone, which is an interval of three whole tones. Despite the objective direction of the
tones (either ascending or descending), listeners may perceive one tone as rising in pitch while the other tone descends, or
vice versa.
 Tactile illusion

◦ The "Tactile Rabbit Illusion“: Refers to a phenomenon where rapid taps on the skin can create the
sensation of a moving object. This illusion demonstrates how the brain can misinterpret tactile stimuli,
leading to perceptions that don't align with reality.

◦ The "Thermal Grill Illusion" : Occurs when alternating warm and cool stimuli are applied to the skin
simultaneously. Instead of feeling both temperatures separately, the brain interprets the sensation as burning
heat. This illusion reveals how the brain processes conflicting sensory information, resulting in a perception
that differs from the actual stimuli.
 What is perception (Nature)?

◦ Perception is defined as experiences resulting from stimulation of the senses. Example: Initially, you
see a distant object as a person, but as you get closer, you realise it's actually a scarecrow.

◦ Perceptions can change based on added information. Example: Initially, you see a distant object as a
person, but as you get closer, you realise it's actually a scarecrow.

◦ Perception involves a process similar to reasoning or problem-solving. Example: Solving a puzzle

where you initially see random shapes but gradually perceive the hidden image as you piece it together.

◦ Perception can involve a process and is not always automatic. Example: recognising someone's face in
a crowd after initially struggling to place them, but then recalling details about where you met them before.
◦ Perception occurs in conjunction with action. Example: Catching a ball involves perceiving its
trajectory and speed in order to coordinate your hand movements to intercept it.

◦ The importance of perception extends beyond identifying objects or aiding in actions within
our environment. Example: Understanding a speaker's tone and body language during a
conversation to interpret their emotions and intentions.

◦ It is essential for various cognitive functions such as memory, problem-solving,

communication, and recognition. Example: remembering the layout of a room to navigate it
efficiently, or interpreting a complex graph to understand and communicate data effectively.

◦ Perception serves as the gateway to other cognitive processes and is crucial for our awareness
and understanding of the world around us. Example: observing changes in weather patterns to
anticipate upcoming storms, enabling preparation and planning to minimise risks.
 Bottom up processing

◦ Bottom-up processing refers to the initial stage of perception

where sensory information is processed starting from the
stimulation of receptors by external stimuli.
◦ This process begins with the activation of sensory receptors,
such as those in the eyes, for visual perception.
◦ For example, bottom-up processing occurs when a cat
perceives a mouse moving across the floor. The visual stimuli
created by the mouse's movement stimulate the cat's retinal
receptors, initiating electrical signals that travel to the cat's
visual cortex. This process starts with the activation of
receptors by the external stimulus.
Physiological Bottom-Up Processing:
◦ Physiological bottom-up processing involves the sequence of events that occur after stimulation of the receptors by
environmental stimuli. It includes:
◦ Stimulation of receptors by stimuli such as light.
◦ Transmission of electrical signals from the receptors to the brain.
◦ Activation of feature detectors in the cortex, which respond to specific orientations or features of stimuli.
◦ The initial response of neurons in the visual cortex to simple shapes or features.

Behavioural bottom-up processing:

◦ Behavioural bottom-up processing involves the perception of objects or stimuli based on combinations of individual
features or components. It includes:
◦ Recognition-by-components (RBC) theory, proposed by Irving Biederman, suggests that objects are perceived by
perceiving elementary features called "geons" and combining them to create objects.
◦ The ability to recognise objects based on just a few geons, even if parts are obscured.
◦ The principle of componential recovery states that if the elements of an object are recoverable, the object can be
identified.
◦ The reliance on patterns of stimulation on the retina to perceive simple geometric objects.
Other factors affecting perception
Top-Down Processing:
◦ Top-down processing involves processing that begins with a person's prior knowledge, expectations, or context, rather than solely
relying on sensory input. It includes:
◦ Using prior knowledge or expectations to influence perception.
◦ Recognising objects based on a few features or when parts of the object are obscured, aided by prior knowledge,.
◦ The ability to perceive objects differently based on context or orientation is influenced by higher-level cognitive processes.

Depth and contextual information:

◦ Perception is influenced by information beyond that falling on the receptors, including contextual cues and depth perception. This
includes:
◦ Taking into account the depth or distance of objects to accurately perceive their size.
◦ Considering the relationship of objects to other elements in the environment, such as the relative size of objects in context,.
◦ Using information about the environment to interpret sensory input and make perceptual judgements.

Feedback Signals and Prior Knowledge:

◦ Signals from higher levels of the brain, representing prior knowledge or expectations, can influence incoming sensory signals. This
includes:
◦ Feedback signals transmit from higher brain centres to influence incoming sensory signals.
◦ Incorporating prior knowledge or expectations to interpret sensory information and guide perception.
◦ Top-down processing is a cognitive mechanism where perception is influenced by a person's prior knowledge,
expectations, or context. Rather than relying solely on incoming sensory information, top-down processing involves
using existing knowledge and expectations to interpret and make sense of sensory input.

For example; Top-down processing is like when you hear a familiar song but can't catch every word. Even if some lyrics
are unclear, your brain uses what you know about the song to fill in the blanks. So, your prior knowledge of the song helps
you understand it better, showing how top-down processing affects how you hear things.
 Helmholtz’s Theory of Unconscious Inference:

◦ Suggests that perceptions result from unconscious assumptions.

◦ The brain fills in missing information based on past experiences.
◦ Example: Seeing a friend from a distance, the brain fills in obscured facial features.

◦ Helmholtz proposed the theory of unconscious inference. It suggests that some perceptions result from unconscious
assumptions about the environment.
◦ Perceptual Ambiguity: Perceptions can have multiple interpretations based on stimulus information. People perceive a
display differently, either as a blue rectangle in front of a red one or as a blue rectangle with a red shape.
◦ Likelihood Principle: It states that perceptions are based on what is most likely to have caused the observed pattern of
stimuli.
◦ Problem-Solving Analogy: Helmholtz likened perception to problem-solving, where the brain infers the cause of
sensory patterns based on prior knowledge.
Perceptual Ambiguity:
How is prior knowledge affecting perception?
The Gestalt Laws of Organisation:
These principles explain how we perceive and organise visual information.
◦ The law of similarity: similar objects tend to be grouped together. For example, perceive red flowers and yellow flowers as
separate groups in a field.
◦ About 30 years after Helmholtz's theory, Gestalt psychologists proposed another approach to explain perceptual
organisation. Like Helmholtz, their aim was to understand how we perceive objects, but they focused on perceptual
organisation, grouping elements to form larger objects.

Gestlat laws:
◦ The Law of Good Continuation: States that points forming straight or smoothly curving lines are perceived as belonging
together, reflecting environmental regularities.
◦ The Law of Pragnanz (Good Figure): Every stimulus pattern is seen in the simplest structure possible, illustrated by the
Olympic symbol.
◦ The Law of Similarity: Similar things are perceived as grouped together, with circles of the same colour forming rows or
columns.
◦ Meaningfulness or Familiarity: Familiar or meaningful patterns are grouped together, illustrated by the Dalmatian picture
and perception of faces.
◦ Perceptual Organisation : Elements in scenes are organised into meaningful objects, as seen in the bird-shaped
arrangement.
 Gestalt Principles of Heuristics
◦ Gestalt Principles as Heuristics: Despite being labelled as "laws" of perceptual organisation, Gestalt principles operate
more like heuristics, providing best-guess solutions rather than guaranteed accurate perceptions. For example, mistaking
two tree stumps for an animal lurking behind a tree showcases how similarities in colour and smooth continuation of lines
can lead to misperception.

◦ Heuristic Nature: Unlike algorithms (systematic procedures or sets of rules that guarantee a correct solution to a problem
and ensure correctness) but can be slow, Gestalt principles, like other heuristics, prioritise speed but may occasionally
result in errors, as seen in the misperception of tree stumps as animals. Describing Gestalt principles as heuristics aligns
with the idea that various cognitive processes share common mechanisms, challenging the traditional association of
heuristics with reasoning and problem-solving.
 Factors that influence heuristics:

◦ Influence of Prior Knowledge: The influence of prior knowledge gained from past experiences, evident in memory
recall influenced by earlier encounters, emphasises the role of previous experiences in shaping perception.

◦ Impact of Environmental Regularities: Modern perceptual psychology acknowledges the influence of environmental
regularities on perception, distinguishing between physical and semantic regularities that shape how objects and scenes
are perceived.

◦ Physical and Semantic Regularities: These regularities, such as the association of blue with the open sky or the
presence of certain objects in specific scenes, influence how we perceive and recognise objects and scenes, with
semantic regularities demonstrating how knowledge of typical scene characteristics aids perception.
 Neurons and Knowledge About the Environment

◦ The research conducted by Coppola et al. (1998) and DeValois et al. (1992), indicates a connection between neural
activity, environmental nature, and perception.
◦ Neurons that respond optimally to commonly occurring environmental elements have been identified through research.
◦ Designing a machine capable of perceiving its environment involves programming it to recognise frequently occurring
elements.
◦ For instance, the programme could be designed to detect verticals and horizontals, common features found in rooms.
◦ This principle of designing a perceiving machine parallels the brain's operation, which contains neurons attuned to
common environmental features.
◦ The human brain exhibits a basic operating principle where neurons respond best to regular environmental occurrences.
◦ Research on kittens and humans by Blakemore, C., & Cooper, G. (1970) has shown that the brain's structure adapts to
specific environmental exposures through experience-dependent plasticity.
◦ Experience-dependent plasticity is demonstrated through experiments on animals and humans, where neurons become
tuned to respond to specific aspects of the environment.
◦ This adaptation of neurons to environmental regularities suggests that neurons can reflect knowledge about the
environment.
 What are mirror neurons?
◦ ◦Mirror neurons fire both when an individual performs an action and when they observe someone else performing the same action.

◦ ◦Mirror neurons were discovered by a team of researchers led by Giacomo Rizzolatti and his colleagues at the University of Parma
in Italy during the early 1990s. They were studying neural activity in the brains of macaque monkeys when they observed certain
neurons firing both when the monkeys performed specific actions and when they watched others perform the same actions. These
neurons were named "mirror neurons" because they seemed to mirror or reflect both the monkey's own actions and the observed
actions of others. This discovery revolutionized our understanding of brain function related to social cognition and has had
significant implications for fields such as psychology, neuroscience, and even robotics.

◦ Found in areas associated with motor planning and execution, like the premotor cortex and inferior parietal cortex.

◦ Mirror neurons are crucial for understanding others' actions, intentions, and emotions.

◦ They play roles in imitation, empathy, understanding intentions, and language acquisition.

◦ Their discovery has provided insights into social cognition and human behavior.

◦ Dysfunction in mirror neuron systems is linked to conditions like autism spectrum disorder.