Graphics Systems

Overview
 Display Hardware

 How are images displayed?

 Overview (Display Devices)
 Raster Scan Displays
 Random Scan Displays
 Color CRT Monirors
 Direct View Storage Tube
 Flat panel Displays
 Three Dimensional Viewing Devices
 Stereoscopic and Virtual Reality
System
 Overview (Display Devices)
 The display systems are
often referred to as Video
Monitor or Video Display
Unit (VDU).
 Display Hardware
 Video Display Devices
 The primary output device in
a graphics system is a
monitor.
 Video Monitor

Cathode Ray Tube

(CRT)
1. Electron Guns
2. Electron Beams
3. Focusing Coils
4. Deflection Coils
5. Anode Connection
6. Shadow Mask
7. Phosphor layer
8. Close-up of the
phosphor coated
inner side of the
screen
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
 Refresh CRT
 Light emitted by the Phosphor fades very rapidly.
 Refresh CRT: One way to keep the phosphor glowing is to
redraw the picture repeatedly by quickly directing the
electron beam back over the same points.
Electron Gun
 Electron Gun
 Heat is supplied to the cathode by the filament.
 The free electrons are then accelerated toward the
phosphor coating by a high positive voltage.
 High Positive Voltage
 A positively charged metal coating on the
inside of the CRT envelope near the phosphor
screen.

A positively charged metal

 High Positive Voltage
 An accelerating anode .
 Electron Gun
 Intensity of the electron beam is controlled by setting
voltage level on the control grid.
 A smaller negative voltage on the control grid simply
decrease the number of electrons passing through
Focusing System
 Focusing System
 The focusing system is needed to force the electron
beam to converge into a small spot as it strikes the
phosphor.

 Electrostatic focusing is commonly used in computer

graphics monitor.
 Focusing System
 With electrostatic focusing, the electron beam passes
through a positively charged metal cylinder that forms
an electrostatic lens.
 Focusing System
 Similar lens focusing effects can be accomplished with a
magnetic field set up by a coil mounted around the outside of
the CRT envelope.
 The distance that the electron beam must travel to different
points on the screen varies because the radius of curvature for
most CRTs is greater than the distance from the focusing
system to the screen center.
 The electron beam will be focused properly only at the center of
the screen.
 As the beam moves to the outer edges of the screen, displayed
images become blurred.
 Dynamically focusing lens work based on beam position.
Deflection Systems
 Deflection Systems
 Deflection of the electron beam can be controlled either
with electric fields or with magnetic fields.
 The magnetic deflection coils mounted on the outside
of the CRT envelope.
 Deflection Systems
 Two pairs of coils are used, with the coils in each pair
mounted on opposite sides of the neck of the CRT
envelope.
 One pair is mounted on the top and bottom of the neck,
and the other pair is mounted on opposite sides of the
neck.
 Deflection Systems
 Horizontal deflection is accomplished with one pair of coils,
and vertical deflection by the other pairs.
 The proper deflection amounts are attained by adjusting the
current through the coil.
 Electrostatic deflection: Two pairs of parallel plates are
mounted inside the CRT envelope.
 One pair of plates is mounted horizontally to control the vertical
deflection, and the other pair is mounted vertically to control
horizontal deflection.
Spots of Light
 Spots of Light
 Spots of lights are produces on the screen by the
transfer of the CRT beam energy to the phosphor.

 Part of the beam energy is converted into heat energy.

 The excited phosphor electrons begin dropping back to

their stable ground state, giving up their extra energy as
small quantums of light energy.
CRT properties

1. Persistence
2. Resolution
3. Addressability
4. Aspect ratio

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Persistence

 How long small spots continue to emit light after

the beam is moved. How long it takes to the
emitted light from the screen to decay to one-tenth
of its original intensity.
 Lower persistence requires high refresh rate & it is
good for animation
 High persistence is useful for displaying highly
complex static picture.
 Graphics monitors are usually constructed with 10 to
60 microseconds.
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 Resolution

Intensity distribution
• Resolution is the number of pointes per inch or centimeter that
can be plotted horizontally & vertically.
• The smaller the spot size, the higher the resolution.
• The higher the resolution, the better is the graphics system
• High quality resolution is 1280x1024
• The intensity distribution of spots on the screen have Gaussian
shape.
• Adjacent points will appear distinct as long as their separation
is greater than the diameter at which each spot has intensity of
about 60% of that at the center of the spot.

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 Resolution (Spots of Light)
 Resolution of a CRT is dependent on:

 The type of phosphor

 The intensity to be displayed
 The focusing and deflection systems.

Typical resolution: 1280 by 1024

 Addressability

• Addressability is a measure of the spacing between the

centers of vertical and horizontal lines.
• The picture on a screen consists of intensified points.
• The smallest addressable point on the screen is called
pixel or picture element
• In graphics mode there are 800x600

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 Aspect ratio

 This number gives the ratio between

vertical points and horizontal points necessary to
produce equal length lines in both directions on
the screen. Aspect ratio = ¾ means: vertical line
with 3 points is equal in length to horizontal line
of 4 points.

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1. Electron Guns
2. Electron Beams
3. Focusing Coils
4. Deflection Coils
5. Anode Connection
6. Shadow Mask
7. Phosphor layer
8. Close-up of the
phosphor coated
inner side of the
electron
 Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)
Beam passing
Anode Connection through mask

Shadow mask
Electron Beam
Deflection Coils
Electron Gun
 Resolution
The maximum number of points (pixels) that can be
displayed without overlap on a screen is referred to as
the resolution, and determines the detail that can be
seen in an image.
A more precise definition is the number of points per
centimeter that can be plotted horizontally and
vertically, although it is often simply stated as the total
number of points in each direction (i.e. 1280  1024).
The physical size of a graphics monitor, on the other
hand, is given as the length (in inches) of the screen
diagonal.

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Display Devices

 Vector Displays (Random Scan)

 Raster Displays (Raster Scan)
Raster Scan Displays
 Raster Scan Displays
 Raster: A rectangular array of points or dots
 Pixel: One dot or picture element of the raster
 Scan Line: A row of pixels
 Raster Scan Displays
 In a raster scan system, the electron beam is swept across the
screen, one row at a time from top to bottom.
 As the electron beam moves across each row, the beam
intensity is turned on and off to create a pattern of illuminated
spots.
 Raster Scan Displays
 Picture definition is stored in a memory area called
the refresh buffer or frame buffer.
 Raster Scan Displays
 Refresh buffer or frame buffer: This memory area
holds the set of intensity values for all the screen
points.
 Stored intensity values then retrieved from refresh
buffer and “painted” on the screen one row (scan
line) at a time
 Raster Scan Displays
 Intensity range for pixel positions depends on the capability
of the raster system.

 A black-and-white system: each screen point is either on or

off, so only one bit per pixel is needed to control the intensity
of screen positions.

 On a black-and-white system with one bit per pixel, the frame

buffer is called bitmap.

 For system with multiple bits per pixel, the frame buffer is
called pixmap.
 Raster Scan Displays
 Sometimes, refresh rates are described in unit of cycles per
second, or Hertz (HZ)

 Refreshing on raster scan displays is carried out at the rate 60

to 80 frame per second.
 Raster Scan Displays
 Horizontal retrace: The return to the left of the
screen, after refreshing each scan line.
 Raster Scan Displays
 Vertical retrace: At the end of each frame
(displayed in 1/80th to 1/60th of a second) the electron
beam returns to the top left corner of the screen to
begin the next frame.
 Interlacing
 On some raster systems (TV), each frame is displays in
two passes using an interlaced refresh procedure.
 Interlacing
 On an older, 30 frame per-second,
noninterlaced display, some flicker is
noticeable.
 With interlacing, each of the two passes
can be accomplished in 1/60th of a
second.
An effective technique for avoiding
flicker
 Raster image
 The quality of a raster image is determined by the total
number pixels (resolution), and the amount of information in
each pixel (color depth)
 Raster graphics cannot be scaled to a higher resolution
without loss of apparent quality.
Example Formats
 Microsoft Windows metafile .WMF
 Corel Computer Graphics Metafile .CGM
 Autodesk Data Exchange .DXF
 Shockwave Flash .SWF
 Fireworks and Photoshop have tools for creating and
editing vector graphics
Random Scan
Displays
 Random Scan Displays
 Random scan display is the use of geometrical primitives
such as points, lines, curves, and polygons, which are all
based upon mathematical equation.
 Raster Scan is the representation of images as a collection of
pixels (dots)
 In a random scan display, a CRT has the electron beam
directed only to the parts of the screen where a picture is to
be drawn.
 Random scan monitors draw a picture one line at a time
(Vector display, Stroke –writing or calligraphic displays).
 Random Scan Displays
 The component lines of a picture can be drawn and refreshed.
Images are described in terms of line segments rather than pixels
 Random Scan Displays
 Refresh rate depends on the number of lines to be
displayed.

 Picture definition is now stored as a line-drawing

commands an area of memory referred to as refresh
display file (display list).

 To display a picture, the system cycle through the set

of commands in the display file, drawing each
component line in turn.
 Random Scan Displays
 Random scan displays are designed to draw all the
component lines of a picture 30 to 60 times each
second.
 Random Scan Displays
 Random scan displays are designed for line-
drawing applications and can not display realistic
shaded scenes.
Random Scan Displays
 Random Scan Displays
 Random scan displays have higher resolution
than raster systems.
 Vector displays product smooth line drawing.

Ideal Drawing Vector Drawing

 Random Scan Displays
 A raster system produces jagged lines that are plotted
as discrete points sets.

Raster

Outline primitives Filled primitives

 Random Scan Example
Data are describing a circle:
 the radius r

 The location of the center point of the

circle
 Stroke line style and color

 Fill style and color

 Random Scan Example
 Advantages:
 This minimal amount of information
translates to a much smaller file size. (file size
compared to large raster images)
 On zooming in, and it remains smooth
 The parameters of objects are stored and can
be later modified (transformation).
Pros
 Vector files are useful for storing images
 composed of line-based elements such as lines and
polygons, or those that can be decomposed into
simple geometrical objects, such as text.
 More sophisticated formats can also store 3D objects
such as wire-frame models.
 Vector data can be easily scaled and manipulated to
accommodate the resolution of a spectrum of output
devices.
Pros

 Many vector files containing only ASCII-format data can be

modified with simple text editing tools.

 Individual elements may be added, removed, or changed

without affecting other objects in the image.

 It is usually easy to render vector data and save it to a bitmap

format file, or, alternately, to convert the data to another
vector format, with good results.
Cons
 Vector files cannot easily be used to store extremely complex
images, such as some photographs, where color information is
paramount and may vary on a pixel-by-pixel basis.

 The appearance of vector images can vary considerably

depending upon the application interpreting the image. Factors
include the rendering application's compatibility with the
creator application and the sophistication of its toolkit of
geometric primitives and drawing operations
Cons

 Vector data also displays best on vectored output devices such

as plotters and random scan displays. High-resolution raster
displays are needed to display vector graphics as effectively.

 Reconstruction of vector data may take considerably longer

than that contained in a bitmap file of equivalent complexity,
because each image element must be drawn individually and
in sequence.
Raster Scan Vs Random Scan

Ideal line drawing Raster scan Random scan

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• Advantages and Disadvantages of raster scan system.
• Advantages
– Low cost (memory has become cheap)

– Refresh rate independent of image complexity

– Can handle colour and filled areas

• Disadvantages
– Uses more memory

– Mathematical models of objects must be scan converted by

the host processor
– aliasing

– jagged lines that are plotted as discrete points

• Advantages and disadvantages of random scan system.

• Advantages are high resolution since picture definition is
stored as line drawing commands, easy animation, and
requires little memory (just display program),
• Disadvantages are limited colour capability and flicker occurs
as complexity of image increases
 Example-1:
 An eight-plane raster display has a resolution of 1280 horizontal * 1024 vertical and refresh rate of 60 Hz
noninterlaced. Find:
 1. The RAM size of the bit map (refresh buffer).
 2. The time required to display the scan line and a pixel.
 3. The active display area of the screen if the resolution is 78 pixels per inch.
 4. The optimal design if the bit map size is to be reduced by half.

 Solution:
 1.The RAM size of the bit map = 8 * 1280 * 1024 = 1.3 Mbytes.
 2.The time required to display a scan line = (1/60)/1024= 16 microseconds.
The time required to display a pixel = 16/1280 = 12 nanoseconds.
 3.The active display area = 1280/78 horizontal * 1024/78 vertical = 16.4 * 13.1 inch.
 4. Assuming there is only one bit map available, the two solution s are to reduce the number of planes by
half and keep the resolution as it is or vice versa. The two choices are: a four-plane  1280 x 1024
display or
 an eight-plane  640x512. The first choice is preferred, especially if 16 simultaneous colors are adequate
for most applications that utilize the display.
Color CRT Monitors
 Color CRT Monitors
 A CRT monitor displays color pictures by using a
combination of phosphors that emit different color lights.

 Methods
1. Beam Penetration
2. Shadow Mask
Beam Penetration
Method
 Beam Penetration Method
 Two layers of phosphor (red and green) are coated onto the
inside of the CRT screen.

 The display color depends on haw far the electron beam

penetrates into the phosphor layers.

 A beam of slow electrons excites only the outer of the red

layer, a beam of fast electrons penetrates through the red
layer and excites the inner green layer, and at intermediate
beam speeds, combinations of the two colors are emitted to
show other colors (yellow & orange)
 Beam Penetration Method
The beam penetration method:
 Used with random scan monitors

 Only four colors are possible (red, green, orange,

and yellow).

 Quality of pictures is not as good as with other

methods.
Beam Penetration Method
Shadow Mask
Method
 Shadow Mask Method
The color CRT has:
 Three color phosphor dots (red, green and blue) at
each point on the screen

 Three electron guns,

guns each controlling the display of
red, green and blue light.
 Shadow Mask Method
Delta Method:

In-line Method:
 Shadow Mask Method
The delta-delta method:
 Color CRT Monitors
 Operation of delta-delta, shadow mask CRT
 Shadow Mask Method
The in-line method:
 Shadow Mask Method
 We obtain color variations by varying the intensity
levels of the three electron beam.

Shadow mask methods are:

 Used in raster scan system (including color TV)
 Designed as RGB monitors.
 High quality raster graphics system have 24 bits per
pixel in the frame buffer (a full color system or a
true color system)
Raster Scan Systems
 Raster Scan Systems
 In addition to the central processing unit
(CPU), a special processor, called the video
controller or display controller, is used
to control the operation of the display device.
 Video Controller
 A fixed area of the system memory is
reserved for the frame buffer, and the video
controller is given direct access to the frame
buffer memory.
 Video Controller
 Frame buffer location, and the
corresponding screen positions, are
referenced in Cartesian coordinates.

x
 Video Controller
 Scan lines are then labeled from ymax at
the top of the screen to 0 at the bottom.
Along each scan line, screen pixel
positions are labeled from 0 to xmax.
y y max Line Scan
y max Line Scan

x max x
x max
 Video Controller
 Two registers are used to store the coordinates
of the screen pixels.
Raster Scan Generator

The Basic
x Register y Register
refresh operation
of the video
Memory Address
controller.
Frame Buffer Intensity
 Video Controller
Some of operations can be performed by
the Video Controller:

 Refreshing operation

 Transformation (Areas of the screen

can be enlarged, reduces, or moved
during the refresh cycles)
Raster Scan Display
Processor
 Raster Scan Display Processor
 A raster system containing a separate display
processor (graphics controller, display coprocessor)
 The purpose of the DP is to free the CPU from the
graphics chores.
 DP
 A major task of the display processor is Scan
Conversion.
 Scan Conversion: is digitizing a picture definition
given in an application program into a set of pixel
intensity values for storage in the frame buffer.( scan
conversion straight line segment, Character )
 Generation various line styles (dashed, dotted, or
solid)
 Displaying color areas
 Performing certain transformation and manipulation
on display objects.
Random Scan Systems
 Random Scan System
 Graphic commands are translated by the graphics
package into a display file stored in the system
memory.
 This file is then accessed by the display processor
unit (DPU)(graphic controller) to refresh the screen.
Raster Scan Random Scan
System System
Flat Panel Displays
 Flat Panel Displays
 A class of video devices that have
reduce volume and weight compared
to a CRT.

 A significant feature of flat panel

displays is that they are thinner than
CRTs.
 Flat Panel Displays
Current uses for flat panel displays:
 Small TV monitors
 Calculators
 Pocket video games
 Laptop computers
 Advertisement boars in elevators
 Flat Panel Displays
Flat panel displays:
 Emissive or Emitters Displays

 Non-emissive or Non-emitters
Displays
 Emissive (or Emitters) Displays
 Emissive displays convert
electrical energy into light.
 Examples: Plasma panel, thin-
film electroluminescent displays,
Light-Emitting Diodes (LED)
and flat CRT.
 Non-Emissive (or Non-Emitters)
Displays
 Use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other
source into graphics pattern.

 Example: Liquid-Crystal Device

(LCD)
Flat CRT
 Flat CRT
 Electron beams are accelerated parallel
to the screen, then deflected 90º to the
screen.
Plasma Panel
 Plasma Panel
 A layer of gas (usually neon) is
sandwiched between two glass
plates.
 Plasma Panel
 By applying high voltage to a pair of
horizontal and vertical conductors, a small
section of the gas (tiny neon bulb) at the
intersection of the conductors break down into
glowing plasma of electrons and ions.
 Thin Film
Electroluminescent
 Thin Film Electroluminescent
 The region between the glass plates is
filled with a phosphor, such as zinc
sulfide doped with manganese.
Light Emitting Diode
(LED)
 Light Emitting Diode (LED)
 A matrix of diodes is arranged to form
the pixel positions in the display, and
picture definition is stored in a refresh
buffer.

 Information is read from the refreshed

buffer and converted to voltage levels
that are applied to the diodes to produce
the light patterns in the display.
Liquid Crystal Displays
(LCD)
 Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD)
 Used in small systems, such as
calculators, laptop computers.
 Produce a picture by passing polarized
light (from the surrounding or from an
internal light source) through a liquid-
crystal material that can be aligned to
either block or transmit the light.
 Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD)
 Liquid crystal: These
compounds have a crystalline
arrangement of molecules, yet
they flow like a liquid.
 Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD)
 Two glass plates, each containing a light
polarizer at right angles to the other plate,
sandwich the liquid crystal materials.
 Rows of horizontal transparent conductor &
columns of vertical conductors (put into glass
plates)
 Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD)
 Polarized light passing through
the material is twisted so that it
will pass through the opposite
polarizer.
 The light is then reflected back
t the viewer.
Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD)
 Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD)
 To turn off the pixel, we apply a voltage
to the two intersecting conductor to align
the molecules so that the light is not
twisted.
Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD)

On State

Off State