Introduction to Computers

What is a Computer?

• Computers are everywhere!

• No matter how you perceive the impacts of computers, the statement is

true! Isn’t it?

• In the past two decades, computers have reshaped our lives at home, work,
school.

• Now we cannot imagine our daily life without the service of computers
directly or indirectly.

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What is a Computer?

• The word computer comes from the word “compute” which means, “to
calculate”.

• A computer is an electronic device that processes, retrieves and stores data

according to a set of instructions.

• Thereby, a computer is an electronic device that can perform arithmetic

operations at high speed.

• A computer is also called a data processor because it can store, process,

and retrieve data whenever desired.

• Computer takes raw data as input from the user and gives us information
by processing these data using a set of instructions (usually program).

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Evolution of Computers

• Computer was not invented in a day or by one!

• Blaise Pascal invented the first mechanical adding machine in 1642.

• Baron Gottfried Wilhelm von Leibniz invented the first calculator for
multiplication in 1671.

• Keyboard machines originated in the United States around 1880.

• Around 1880, Herman Hollerith came up with the concept of punched cards
that were extensively used as input media until late 1970s.

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Evolution of Computers

• Charles Babbage is considered to be the father of modern digital computers

 He designed “Difference Engine” in 1822.
 He designed a fully automatic analytical engine in 1842 for performing
basic arithmetic functions.
 His efforts established a number of principles that are fundamental to
the design of any digital computer.

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Some Well Known Early Computers

• The Mark I Computer (1937-44)

• The Atanasoff-Berry Computer (1939-42)

• The ENIAC (1943-46)

• The EDVAC (1946-52)

• The EDSAC (1947-49)

• Manchester Mark I (1948)

• The UNIVAC I (1951)

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Computer Generations

• “Generation” in computer talk is a step in technology. It provides a

framework for the growth of computer industry.

• Originally it was used to distinguish between various hardware

technologies, but now it has been extended to include both hardware and
software.

• Till today, there are five computer generations.

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Computer Generations: First and Second

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Computer Generations: Third

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Computer Generations: Fourth

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Computer Generations: Fifth

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Devices Used in Different Generations

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Types of Computer

• Desktop computers

• Workstations

• Supercomputer

• Mainframe computer

• Notebook computers

• Micro computers

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Capabilities of a Computer

• Automatic: Given a job, computer can work on it automatically without

human interventions.

• Speed: Computer can perform data processing jobs very fast, usually
measured in microseconds (10-6), nanoseconds (10-9), and picoseconds
(10-12).

• Accuracy: Accuracy of a computer is consistently high. Computer errors

caused due to incorrect input data or unreliable programs are often referred
to as GIGO.

• Diligence: Computer is free from monotony, tiredness, and lack of

concentration. It can continuously work for hours without creating any error
and without grumbling.

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Capabilities of a Computer

• Versatility: Computer is capable of performing almost any task, if the task

can be reduced to a finite logical steps.

• Power of Remembering: Computer can store and recall any amount of

information because of its secondary storage capability.

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Limitations of a Computer

• Lack of Creativity and Intuition: Computers operate based on predefined

algorithms and instructions. They lack the creativity, intuition, and
understanding that humans possess.

• No Common Sense: Computers process information strictly based on their

programmed logic and data, without the ability to make judgments.

• Energy Consumption: computers consume a significant amount of energy,

causing to environmental concerns.

• Processing Speed Limitations: Despite their remarkable processing

speeds, computers can still face limitations when dealing with extremely
complex calculations or simulations.

• Security Vulnerabilities: Computers are susceptible to various forms of

cyberattacks, viruses, malware, and hacking.
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Limitations of a Computer

• Ethical and Moral Decision Making: Computers cannot make ethical or

moral decisions on their own. Any decision it perform is based on the
algorithms and data provided to it.

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Parts of a Computer System

• A complete computer system consists of four parts-

 Hardware
 Software
 Data
 User

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Computer Hardware

• The mechanical devices that make up the computer are called hardware
(any part of a computer that we can touch).

• A computer’s hardware devices fall into four categories-

 Processor
 Memory
 Input and output
 Storage

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Processing Devices: Processor

• The main part of the CPU.

• The processor organizes and carries out instructions that come from either
the user or the software.

• Generally in a PC the processor usually consists of one or more specialized

chips called microprocessors.

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Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• CPU is the central processing unit which performs five basic operations of a
computer system i.e., inputting, storing, processing, outputting and
controlling.

• It is the brain of a computer system

• It is responsible for controlling the operations of all other units of a computer

system.

• CPU consists of Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU).

Arithmetic Logic Unit Central Processing

Control Unit (CU)
(ALU) Unit (CPU)

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CPU - Basic Operations of a Computer

• Inputting: The process of entering data and instructions into the computer
system.

• Storing: Saving data and instructions to make them readily available for
initial or additional processing whenever required

• Processing: Performing arithmetic operations (add, subtract, multiply,

divide, etc.) or logical operations (comparisons like equal to, less than,
greater than, etc.) on data to convert them into useful information.

• Outputting: The process of producing useful information or results for the

user such as a printed report or visual display.

• Controlling: Directing the manner and sequence in which all of the above
operations are performed.
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Central Processing Unit (CPU)

• Arithmetic Logic Unit of a computer system is the place where the actual
executions of instructions takes place during processing operation.

• Ex- performs mathematical, logical, and decision operations.

• Control Unit of a computer system manages and coordinates the operations

of all other components of the computer system.

• Ex - directs all the processors operations.

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Central Processing Unit (CPU)

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The BUS

• A bus is a path between the components of a computer.

• System Bus: The system bus connects the CPU to main memory (RAM)
and other primary components such as the Northbridge chip. It carries data,
addresses, and control signals.

• Expansion Bus: The expansion bus connects peripheral devices to the

CPU and main memory via expansion slots or connectors on the
motherboard. Examples include PCI, PCIe, and AGP buses.

• Internal Bus: The internal busconnects the CPU to cache memory and is
used for high-speed data transfer between the CPU and cache. The system
bus resides on the motherboard and connects the CPU to other devices.

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The Data BUS

• The data bus is an electronic path that connects the CPU, memory, and the
other hardware devices on the motherboard.

• Actually, the bus is group of parallel wires.

• The number of wires in the bus affected the speed at which data can
transfer.

• But the bus speed is directly tied with CPU speed.

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The Address and Control BUS

• The address bus is a set of wires similar to the data bus but the address
bus connects only the CPU and RAM and carries only memory addresses.

• The width of the address bus determines the maximum amount of memory
that can be addressed by the CPU.

• For example, a 32-bit address bus can address up to memory locations (4

GB of memory), while a 64-bit address bus can address a much larger
memory space.

• Control bus is used by the CPU to communicate with devices that are
contained within the computer.

• This occurs through physical connections such as cables or printed circuits.

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Memory Devices: RAM/ROM/HDD

• Computer memory is one or more sets of chips that store data and/or
program instructions, either temporarily or permanently.

• Two most important types of memory are-

 Main/Primary memory
 Secondary memory

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Memory Types: Main Memory

• Main memory is a fast type of computer memory which temporarily stores

all the information our PC needs right now and in the near future.

• It’s where our computer loads up all the things it thinks it will need to find
out soon, so that when it does need something, it can read it super fast.

• Ex - RAM and ROM.

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Main Memory: RAM

• Random Access Memory (RAM)

 on silicon chips
 100 nano-second access time
 usually volatile (lose information if power turned off)
 data transferred at around 100 Mbytes/sec

• RAM has a tremendous impact on the speed and power of a computer.

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Main Memory: ROM

• Read Only Memory (ROM)

 Usually nonvolatile that is ROM retains data without power, holding
permanent instructions.
 Quick data retrieval, measured in microseconds.
 It stores unchangeable firmware for system basics.
 ROM can be integrated directly onto silicon chips.

• ROMs are mainly used to store data, which do not change and are
frequently used. For example, system boot program.

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PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory)

• PROM is a type of memory chip that is programmed at the time of

manufacturing and retains its contents even when the power is turned off.

• PROM cells are initially programmed using a special device called a PROM
programmer.

• PROM is commonly used in various electronic devices for storing firmware,

boot loaders, and configuration data.

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EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)

• EPROM is a type of memory chip that can be programmed and erased

multiple times using ultraviolet (UV) light.

• EPROM cells are programmed by applying high voltages to the control

gates of the memory transistors.

• To erase data, the EPROM chip is exposed to UV light through the quartz
window, resetting all memory cells to their original state.

• EPROM is used in various applications where data needs to be

reprogrammed periodically, such as firmware development, BIOS updates,
and microcontroller programming.

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EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only
Memory)

• EEPROM is a type of non-volatile memory that can be programmed and

erased electrically, offering flexibility and reusability.

• EEPROM cells are programmed by applying electrical signals to specific

memory locations, altering the charge stored in the memory cells.

• Unlike EPROM, EEPROM does not require UV light for erasure; instead, it
can be erased electrically using specific voltage levels.

• EEPROM is widely used in applications requiring non-volatile memory

storage that can be reprogrammed multiple times, such as firmware
storage, parameter storage, and data logging.

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Memory Types: Secondary Memory

• Secondary memory is computer memory that is non-volatile and persistent

in nature and is not directly accessed by a computer/processor.

• It allows a user to store data that may be instantly and easily retrieved,
transported and used by applications and services.

• Secondary memory is also known as secondary storage.

• Ex- SSD, Magnetic Disk(HDD).

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Secondary Memory: Various Dive/Disks

• Magnetic Disks
 Floppy Disks store around 1.4 Mbytes
 Hard Disks typically 40 Gigabytes to 100s of Gigabytes
 access time ~10ms, transfer rate 100kbytes/s

• Optical Disks
 use lasers to read and sometimes write
 more robust that magnetic media
 CD-ROM and DVD.

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Core Memory

• Core memory, also known as magnetic core memory, was a type of

random-access memory (RAM) used in early computer systems from the
1950s to the 1970s.

• Core memory consists of small magnetic cores woven into a grid of wires,
where each core represents one bit of data.

• Data is stored in core memory by magnetizing or demagnetizing individual

cores using electrical currents.

• Reading data involves sensing the magnetization state of the cores through
the wires.

• Core memory is non-volatile and retains data even when power is turned
off.
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Bubble Memory

• Bubble memory is a type of non-volatile computer memory that uses a thin

film of magnetic material to store data.

• Developed in the 1970s, bubble memory was seen as a potential

replacement for disk drives and solid-state memory due to its durability and
non-volatile nature.

• Bubble memory stores data in magnetic bubbles that move along a thin film
of magnetic material.

• Data is written by creating and manipulating these magnetic bubbles using

electromagnetic fields.

• Bubbles can be moved, merged, and split to represent binary data.

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Memory Management

• Memory management involves organizing and controlling computer memory

to optimize performance and resource utilization.

• Importance of memory management in ensuring efficient program execution

and system stability.

Overview of different types of memory:

• RAM (Random Access Memory): Volatile memory used for temporary data
storage during program execution.

• ROM (Read-Only Memory): Non-volatile memory containing firmware and

essential system instructions.

• Virtual Memory: Expansion of physical memory using disk storage to

accommodate larger programs and data sets.
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Memory Management: Virtual Memory

Problem

• running lots of programs + each program large

• not enough RAM

Solution - Virtual memory

• store some programs temporarily on disk

• makes RAM appear bigger

But … swapping

• program on disk needs to run again

• copied from disk to RAM

• slows things down 40

Bulk Storage

• Bulk storage refers to the large-scale storage of data, typically in the

terabytes (TB), petabytes (PB), or exabytes (EB) range.

• It is used to store massive amounts of data that may not need frequent
access but require long-term retention.

Characteristics of Bulk Storage

• Massive Capacity

• Cost-Effectiveness.

• Slower Access Speed

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Computer Hardware: Input Devices

• Input devices accept data and instructions from the user or from another
computer system.

• Ex-
 Keyboard, Mouse, microphone
 Trackball, Touchscreen, Joystick
 Scanner, Digital camera
 Digital Pen, Barcode reader etc.,

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Computer Hardware: Input Devices

• Most common text input device

• Allows rapid entry of text by experienced users

• Keypress closes connection, causing a character code to be sent

• Usually connected by cable, but can be wireless

• layout – QWERTY
 Standardized layout

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Computer Hardware: Output Devices

• Input devices return processed data to the user or to another computer

system.

• Ex-
 Monitor, Printer
 Speaker, Projector
 Sound system etc.

• Both input and output devices

 Communication devices e.g. modem

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Scanners

• Take paper and convert it into a bitmap

• Two sorts of scanner

 flat-bed: paper placed on a glass plate, whole page converted into
bitmap
 hand-held: scanner passed over paper, digitizing strip typically 3-4”
wide

• Used in
 desktop publishing for incorporating photographs and other images.
 document storage and retrieval systems, doing away with paper
storage.
 special scanners for slides and photographic negatives. 45
Optical Mark Recognition

• OMR is a technology used to capture human-marked data from documents

such as surveys, tests, and questionnaires.

• It relies on special marks made by respondents that are interpreted by

scanning devices.

• Respondents mark predefined areas on paper documents using pencils,

pens, or markers.

• Specialized OMR scanners or machines capture the document images.

• Optical sensors detect the presence or absence of marks in designated

areas.

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Ports and Overview of Common Ports

• Interfaces on a computer or device that enable connection with external

devices or peripherals.

• USB (Universal Serial Bus): Widely used for connecting peripherals such
as keyboards, mice, printers, and external storage devices.

• HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface): Transmits audio and video

signals between devices, commonly used for connecting displays and TVs.

• Ethernet: Enables wired network connections for high-speed data transfer

and internet connectivity.

• Audio Jacks: Used for connecting speakers, headphones, microphones,

and other audio devices.

• Thunderbolt: Provides high-speed data transfer and power delivery,

commonly found in high-end computers and peripherals. 47
Peripherals and Common Peri. Devices

• External devices connected to a computer or device via ports to extend

functionality and provide additional features.

• Input Devices: Examples include keyboards, mice, trackpads,

touchscreens, and styluses used to input data into computers and devices.

• Output Devices: Include monitors, printers, speakers, projectors, and

headphones that display or output information from computers and devices.

• Storage Devices: External hard drives, USB flash drives, memory cards,
and optical drives used to store and retrieve data.

• Communication Devices: Modems, network adapters, and wireless

adapters facilitate communication and network connectivity.

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Serial Communication

• Transmission of data one bit at a time over a single communication channel.

• Data is sent sequentially, bit by bit, over a single communication channel.

• Uses a single wire or channel for transmitting and receiving data.

• Common protocols include RS-232, UART, SPI, and I2C.

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Serial Communication

Advantages

• Requires fewer wires compared to parallel communication, reducing

complexity and cost.

• Better suited for long-distance communication due to reduced signal

degradation.

Limitations

• Slower data transfer rates compared to parallel communication, especially

for large datasets.

• Transmitting data bit by bit can result in higher latency compared to parallel
transmission.

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Parallel Communication

• Simultaneous transmission of multiple bits over multiple communication

channels.

• Data is sent simultaneously over multiple communication channels or wires.

• Each bit of data is transmitted over a separate wire, allowing for faster
transmission rates.

• Commonly used in older computer architectures and internal connections

within computer systems.

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Parallel Communication

Advantages

• Allows for simultaneous transmission of multiple bits, resulting in higher

throughput.

• Data is transmitted in parallel, reducing the time required for transmission.

Limitations

• Requires multiple wires or channels, leading to increased complexity, cost,

and susceptibility to signal interference.

• Adding more channels can lead to signal integrity issues and increased
complexity in routing and synchronization.

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