Chapter-1.

Digital logic and digital systems

1.1. Overview and history of computer architecture
 What is computer architecture?

 Computer architecture is deals with the structure and behavior of the various

functional modules of the computer and how they provide processing needs to the user.
 Examples of architectural attributes include;

 The instruction set,

 the number of bits used to represent various data types (e.g., numbers, characters),

 I/O mechanisms, and

 Techniques for addressing memory. Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC

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 1.1. Overview and history of computer architecture
 what is computer Organization?

 Computer organization is deals with the way the hardware components are

connected together to form a computer system.

 Those hardware attributes that are transparent to the programmer.

 Organizational attributes include those hardware details transparent to the

programmer, such as;

O Control signals,

O Interfaces between the computer and peripherals,

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC
O The memory technology used. 2
 1.1. Overview and history of computer architecture
 Digital computer is a digital system that performs various computational tasks.

 The word “Digital” implies that the information in the computer is represented by the

variables.
 The digital computer use the binary number system, which has two digits; 0 and 1.

 Because of the physical restriction of components.

 Inside the computer, there are integrated circuits with thousands of transistors.

 These transistors are made to operate on two-state.

 By this design, all the input and output voltages are either HIGH or LOW.

 Low voltage represents binary 0 and high voltage represents binary 1.by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC
Prepared
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 1.1. Overview and history of computer architecture
 A computer system is subdivided into two functional entities: Hardware

and Software.
 The hardware of the computer consists of all the electronic component

and device.
 The software of the computer consists of the instructions and data that

the computer manipulates to perform various data-processing tasks.

 A sequence of instructions for the computer is called a Program.

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC

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1.1. Overview and history of computer architecture

Figure 1.1: Block Diagram of Digital Computer.

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC
5
 1.1. Overview and history of computer architecture
 A computer is a complex system; contemporary computers contain millions of elementary electronic

components.
 How, then, can one clearly describe them?

 The key is to recognize the hierarchical nature of most complex systems.

 The computer designer is concerned with structure and function characteristics of computer system.

 Computer Structure

 The way in which the components are interrelated

 The computer interacts in some fashion with its external environment.

 In general, all of its linkages to the external environment can be classified as peripheral devices or

communication lines
Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC
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 1.1. Overview and history of computer architecture
 There are four main structural components:

 Central processing unit (CPU): Controls the operation of the computer and

performs its data processing functions; often simply referred to as processor.

 Main memory: Stores data.

 I/O: Moves data between the computer and its external environment.

 System interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for communication

among CPU, main memory, and I/O.

 A common example of system interconnection is by means of a system bus
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 1.1. Overview and history of computer architecture
 CPU’s major structural components are as follows:

 Control unit: Controls the operation of the CPU.

 Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU): Performs the computer’s data

processing and Arithmetic functions

 Registers: Provides storage internal to the CPU

 CPU interconnection: Some mechanism that provides for

communication among the control unit, ALU, and registers.

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 1.1. Overview and history of computer architecture
 Computer Function

 The operation of each individual component as part of the structure

Computers can perform four basic functions:

 Data processing

 Data storage

 Data movement

 Control

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9
 History of Computers and its Architecture
1) First Generation computer Vacuum Tube(1940-1956)
 The technology behind the primary generation computers was a fragile glass

device, which was called vacuum tubes.

 First-generation computers were used for calculation, storage, and control

purpose.
 These computers were very heavy and really large in size.
 The main 1G computers are:

 ENIAC: Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer, built by J. Presper Eckert and John V. Mauchly.

 EDVAC: Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer was designed by von Neumann.
Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC
 UNIVAC: Universal Automatic Computer was developed in 1952 by Eckert and Mauchly. 10
 History of Computers and its Architecture
2) Second Generation Computers: Transistors (1956-1963)
 Second-generation computers used the technology of transistors rather than bulky vacuum tubes.
 Another feature was the core storage.
 Transistors were invented in Bell Labs.
 The use of transistors made it possible to perform powerfully and with due speed.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU), memory, programming language and input, and output units also
came into the force within the second generation.
 Programming language was shifted from high level to programming language and made
programming comparatively a simple task for programmers.
 Languages used for programming during this era were FORTRAN (1956), ALGOL (1958), and
COBOL (1959). Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 11
 History of Computers and its Architecture
2) Third Generation Computers: Integrated Circuits. (1964-1971)
 During the third generation, technology envisaged a shift from huge transistors to integrated

circuits, also referred to as IC.

 Here a variety of transistors were placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors.

 A single IC, has many transistors, registers, and capacitors built on one thin slice of silicon.

 The value size was reduced and memory space and dealing efficiency were increased during

this generation.
 Programming was now wiped out Higher level languages like BASIC (Beginners All-purpose

Symbolic Instruction Code).

 Minicomputers find their shape during this era. Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 12
 History of Computers and its Architecture
2) Fourth Generation Computers: Micro-processors (1971-Present)
 In 1971 First microprocessors were used, the large scale of integration circuits (LSI) built on

one chip called microprocessors.

 The most advantage of this technology is that one microprocessor can contain all the circuits

required to perform arithmetic, logic, and control functions on one chip.

 The computers using microchips were called microcomputers.

 This generation provided the even smaller size of computers, with larger capacities.

 That’s not enough, then Very Large Scale Integrated (VLSI) circuits replaced LSI circuits.

 Technologies like multiprocessing, multiprogramming, time-sharing, operating speed, and

virtual memory made it a more user-friendly and customary device. Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 13
 History of Computers and its Architecture
2) Fifth Generation Computers
 The technology behind the fifth generation of computers is AI.

 It allows computers to behave like humans.

 The speed is highest, size is that the smallest and area of use has remarkably increased within

the fifth generation computers.

 In order to summarize the features of varied generations of computers, it is often said that a big

improvement has been seen as far because the speed and accuracy of functioning care, but if we
mention the dimensions, it’s being small over the years.
 The value is additionally diminishing and reliability is in fact increasing

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 14

 1.2. Fundamental building blocks (logic gates, flip-flops, counters, registers, PLA)
 Binary information in digital computers represented by physical quantities called signal.

 The fundamental building block of all digital logic circuits is the gate.

 Logical functions are implemented by the interconnection of gates.

 A gate is an electronic circuit that produces an output signal that is a simple Boolean

operation on its input signals.

 The basic gates used in digital logic are AND, OR, NOT, NAND, NOR, and XOR.

 Each gate is defined in three ways: graphic symbol, algebraic notation, and truth

table.
 Note that the inversion (NOT) operation is indicated by a circle.

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Logic Gates

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 Logic Gates
 It is important to identify functionally complete sets of gates.

 This means that any Boolean function can be implemented using only the gates

in the set.
 The following are functionally complete sets:
 AND, OR,NOT
 AND,NOT
 OR,NOT
 NAND
 NOR
 It should be clear that AND, OR, and NOT gates constitute a functionally
complete set, because they represent the three operations of Boolean algebra.
Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 17
 Logic Gates
 For the AND and NOT gates to form a functionally complete set, there must

be a way to synthesize the OR operation from the AND and NOT operations.
 This can be done by applying DeMorgan’s theorem:

 The AND, OR, and NOT functions can be implemented solely with NAND

gates.

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 18

 Logic Gates
 Similarly, the OR and NOT operations are functionally complete because they

can be used to synthesize the AND operation.

 The AND, OR, and NOT functions can be implemented solely with NOR gate.

 For this reason, digital circuits can be, and frequently are, implemented solely

with NAND gates or solely with NOR gates.

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 19

 Flip Flops
 A flip-flop is a simplest sequential digital electronic circuit having two stable

states that can be used to store one bit of binary data.

 Flip-flops are the fundamental building blocks of all memory devices.

 There are a variety of flip flops, all of which share two properties:

i. The flip-flop is a bi-stable device. It exists in one of two states and, in the

absence of input, remains in that state.

 Thus, the flip-flop can function as a 1-bit memory.

ii. The flip-flop has two outputs, which are always the complements of each other.
Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 20
 Flip Flops
 Types of Flip flop

i. S-R flip flop

ii. D flip flop

iii. J-K flip flop

iv. T flip flop

 THE S–R Flip Flop

 The circuit has two inputs, S (Set) and R (Reset), and two outputs, Q and
consists of two NOR gates connected in a feedback arrangement as shown
below.
Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 21
 Flip Flops
 THE S–R Flip Flop

First, let us show that the circuit is bi-stable. Assume that both S and R are 0 and that Q is
0.
The inputs to the lower NOR gate are Q = 0 and S = 0.
Thus, the output = 1. means that the inputs to the upper NOR gate are = 1and R = 0, which
has the output Q = 0.
Thus, the state of the circuit is internally consistent and remains stable as long as S = R = 0.
When R goes to 1, it forces Q = 0, = 1 regardless of the previous state of Q and

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 22

 Flip Flops
 Clocked S–R Flip-Flop

The output of the S–R latch changes, after a brief time delay, in response to a
change in the input.
This is referred to as asynchronous operation.
More typically, events in the digital computer are synchronized to a clock pulse,
so that changes occur only when a clock pulse occurs.
This device is referred to as a clocked S–R flip-flop.
The R and S inputs are passed to the NOR gates only during the clock pulse.
Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 23
 Flip Flops
 D-Flip-Flop

One problem with S–R flip-flop is that the condition R = 1, S = 1 must be avoided.
One way to do this is to allow just a single input.
By using an inverter, the non-clock inputs to the two AND gates are guaranteed to be the
opposite of each other.
The D flip-flop is sometimes referred to as the data flip-flop because it is, in effect,
storage for one bit of data.
The output of the D flip-flop is always equal to the most recent value applied to the input.
It is also referred to as the delay flip-flop, because it delays a 0 or 1 applied to its input for
a single clock pulse.
Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 24
 Flip Flops
 J-K Flip-Flop

Like the S–R flip-flop, it has two inputs. However, in this case all possible
combinations of input values are valid.
Note that the first three combinations are the same as for the S–R flip-flop.
With no input asserted, the output is stable.
If only the J input is asserted, the result is a set function, causing the output to be 1;
 if only the K input is asserted, the result is a reset function, causing the output to
be 0.
Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 25
 Flip Flops
 J-K Flip-Flop
When J=K=0
When both J and K are 0, the clock pulse has no effect on the output and the output of the flip-
flop is the same as its previous value.
This is because when both the J and K are 0, the output of their respective AND gate becomes 0.
When J=0, K=1
When J=0, the output of the AND gate corresponding to J becomes 0 (i.e.) S=0 and R=1.
Therefore Q’ becomes 0.
When J=1, K=0
In this case, the AND gate corresponding to K becomes 0(i.e.) S=1 and R=0.
Therefore Q becomes 0.
This condition will set the Flip-flop. This represents the SET state of Flip-flop.
When J=K=1, the function performed is referred to as the toggle function:
The output is reversed. Thus, if Q is 1 and1 is applied to J and K, then Q becomes 0.
Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 26
 Flip Flops
 T Flip-Flop

In T flip flop, "T" defines the term "Toggle"

T flip flop is similar to J-K flip flop. Just tie both J and K inputs together to get a T Flip flop.
Just like the D flip flop, it has only one external input along with a clock.
The next sate of the T flip flop is similar to the current state when the T input is set to 0.
If toggle input is set to 0 and the present state is also 0, the next state will be 0.
If toggle input is set to 0 and the present state is 1, the next state will be 1.
The next state of the flip flop is opposite to the current state when the toggle input is set to 1.
If toggle input is set to 1 and the present state is 0, the next state will be 1.
If toggle input is set to 1 and the present state is 1, the next state will be 0 .
Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 27
 Flip Flops
 Applications Of Flip-Flops

 Counters

 Registers

 Frequency Dividers

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 Counters
 Counters are used for counting the number of occurrences of events.

 It is used for generating timing signals to control the sequence of operation in the

digital computers.
 A computer that follows the binary number sequence is called binary counter.

 Counters can be designated as asynchronous or synchronous, depending on the way in

which they operate.

 Asynchronous counters are relatively slow because the output of one flip flop triggers a

change in the status of the next flip flop.

 Synchronous counter, all of the flip flops change state at the same time. This type is

much faster. Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 29

 Registers
 A register is a group of flip flop capable of storing one bit of information in each

flip flop.
 If “n” bit of register has a group of “n” flip flop and it has storing n bits of any

binary information.
 The two major uses of Register in digital systems are:

 The flip flop hold & store the binary information for processing.

 The Gate control when and how new information is transferred into the register.

 Two types of registers are commonly used: Parallel registers and shift registers.

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 30

 Registers
 Parallel Registers:

 A parallel register consists of a set of 1-bit memories that can be read or written

simultaneously. It is used to store data.

 The 8 bit register of figure illustrates the operation of a parallel register using D

flip flops.

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 31

 Registers
 Shift Registers:

 A Shift register accepts and / or transfers information serially.

 Consider, for example, the figure, which shows a 5-bit shift register constructed

from clocked D flip-flops.

 Data are input only to the left most flip-flop. With each clock pulse, data are

shifted to the right one position, and the rightmost bit is transferred out.

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 32

 Frequency Dividers
 As the name implies, the frequency divider circuits are used to produce the digital signal

output exactly half the input frequency.

 The frequency divider circuits are generally used in design of asynchronous counters.

 The process of dividing or reducing the output frequency to half of its input signal

frequency is called “Frequency division”.

 This means if we process an input signal of frequency 160k Hz, then the frequency

divider circuit will provide the output of 80k Hz.

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 33

 Programmable Logic Array (PLA)
 The PLA consists of a regular arrangement of NOT, AND, and OR gates on a

chip.
 Each chip input is passed through a NOT gate so that each input and its

complement are available to each AND gate.

 The output of each AND gate is available to each OR gate, and the output of each

OR gate is a chip output.

 By making the appropriate connections, arbitrary SOP expressions can be

implemented.
 The following figure shows a PLA with three inputs, eight gates, and two outputs.
Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 34
 Programmable Logic Array (PLA)
 Programmable Logic Array (PLA)

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 35

 Programmable Logic Array (PLA)
 The following picture shows a programmed PLA that realizes two Boolean expressions.

 Most larger PLAs contain several hundred gates, 15 to 25 inputs, and 5 to 15 outputs.
Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 36
 Logic Expressions
 A logical expression consists of one or more logical operators and logical, numeric, or

relational operands.
 Three common Logic operators are AND, OR, and NOT.

 A Boolean operator can be completely described using a table that lists the inputs, all

possible values for these inputs, and the resulting values of the operation for all possible
combinations of these inputs. This table is called a truth table.
 We can examine logic expressions composed of Boolean variables and multiple logic

operators.
 Boolean Algebra is one way of writing a logic expression in equation form.

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 37

 Logic Expressions
 How do we know which operator to apply first?

 The rules of precedence for Boolean operators give NOT top priority, followed by AND,

and then OR.

 E.g. Logic Expression: F = (A + B) (A + B’) (A’ + B)
A B A’ B’ A+B A’+B A+B’ (A+B)(A+B’) (A+B)(A+B’)(A’+B)
 Truth Table:
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1

 Logic Diagram:
Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 38
 Logic Expressions
 A logic diagram can also be used to represent a logic expression.

 A logic diagram uses the pictorial description of logic gates in combination to represent a

logic expression.
 An example below shows a logic diagram with three inputs (A, B, and C) and one output

(Y).

 The following Boolean expression represents the same logic as the example logic circuit

diagram above.
Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 39
 Boolean Function Minimization
 The process of simplifying the algebraic expression of a Boolean function is called

minimization.
 Minimization is important since it reduces the cost and complexity of the associated

circuit.
 Both behave exactly the same way!

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 40

 Boolean Function Minimization
 Boolean expressions can also be simplified, but we need new identities, or laws, that

apply to Boolean algebra instead of regular algebra.

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 Boolean Function Minimization
 EXAMPLE1

 Given the function F(x,y,z) = yz+ y+ xz, we simplify as follows:

EXAMPLE2

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 Sum of products
 Given the function F(x,y,z) = yz+ y+ xz, we simplify as follows:

 The Sum of Products (SOP) form of Boolean expressions and equations contains a list of

terms (called minterms) in which all variables are ANDed (products).

 These minterms are then ORed (summed) together.

 Expressions in this form are particularly well-suited for minimization using the most

common methods.
 Conventional Form

 Consider the following logical expression:

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 43

 Sum of products
 We will refer to this as the conventional form of a Sum of Products (SOP) expression.

 Note that the structure of the expression shows four groups of products (minterms).

 These minterms are ORed together.

 The AND logic has first operation precedence, followed by the OR operator.

 A summation form of a logical expression can be obtained by referring to each minterm

in the expression by its numerical equivalent in the domain, rather than by the list of
variables.
 In this case we substitute a "1" for all positive variables and a "0" for all inverted (i.e.;

those with a bar over them). E.g.

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 44

 Register transfer notation
 Provides a formal means of describing machine structure and function.
 It can be used to describe WHAT a machine does.
 Using RTN can describe
1) Static properties
2) Dynamic properties
 Static properties
 Specifying register – IR(31 . . 0) specifies a register named IR having
32 bits numbered 31 to 0
 “Naming” using the := naming operator.
 Eg: - OP(4 .. 0) := IR(31 .. 27) - it tells that the 5msbs of IR be called
OP, with bits 4 .. 0 Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 45
 Register transfer notation
 Dynamic properties:
 Condition Expression- (op=12) -> R[ra] <- R[rb] + R[rc]
 It says when the OP field of IR =12, will store in the register specified
by the ra field, which has addition of rb and rc.

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 46

 Physical Consideration
 Logic Gate Delay
 Delay (d) Propagation delay, or gate delay, is the essential
performance metric, and it is defined as the length of time starting from
when the input to a logic gate becomes stable and valid, to the time that
the output of that logic gate is stable and valid.
 Why is that important? Ultimately, it determines how fast your circuit
can go.
 Define  as the delay required for the output voltage to reach 50% of its
final value. In this example we will use 3V logic, so halfway point is
1.5V.

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 47

 Physical Consideration
 Logic Gate Delay
 Computer architects would like each system clock cycle to have
between 20 and 50 gate delays … use 35 for calculations
 Implication: if clock frequency = 500 MHz clock period = (510 s ) 8 1 1

 Period = 2  10 s = 2 ns (nanoseconds)
9

 Gate delay must be tD = (1/35)  Period = (2 ns)/35 = 57 ps (picoseconds)

 How fast is this? Speed of light: c = 3  108 m/s
 Distance traveled in 57 ps is: C X tD = (3x108m/s)(57x10-12s) = 17 x 10-4 m = 1.7cm
 What determines gate delay?
 The delay is mostly simply the charging of the capacitors at internal
nodes. Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 48
 Physical Consideration
 Fan-In
 Fan-in is a term that defines the maximum number of digital inputs
that a single logic gate can accept. Most transistor-transistor logic
( TTL )gates have one or two inputs, although some have more than
two.
 A typical logic gate has a fan-in of 1 or 2.
 Physical logic gates with a large fan-in tend to be slower than those
with a small fan-in.
 This is because the complexity of the input
An AND circuitry
gate increases the
input capacitance of the device. with three inputs
has a fan-in of 3.

Prepared by: Elisaye B.@WSU-DTC 49

 Physical Consideration
 Fan-Out
 Fan-out is a term that defines the maximum number of digital inputs
that the output of a single logic gate can feed.
 Most transistor-transistor logic ( TTL) gates can feed up to 10 other
digital gates or devices.
 Thus, a typical TTL gate has a fan-out of 10.
 In contrast, complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) gates
can support over 50 connected devices, giving them a fan-out rate of
greater than 50.

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Logic Chips

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 Logic Chips Integration levels
 SSI (small scale integration)  LSI (large scale integration)

 Introduced in late 1960s  Introduced in early 1970s

 1-10 gates (previous examples)  100-10,000 gates

 MSI (medium scale integration)  VLSI (very large scale integration)

 Introduced in late 1960s  Introduced in late 1970s

 10-100 gates  More than 10,000 gates

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