Overview:

The Fundamental Units of Life

• All organisms are made of cells

• The cell is the simplest collection of matter

that can live
• Cell structure is correlated to cellular function

• All cells are related by their descent from

earlier cells

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Concept 6.1:
To study cells, biologists use microscopes and the
tools of biochemistry

• Though usually too small to be seen by the

unaided eye, cells can be complex

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1.1 Microscopy

• Scientists use microscopes to visualize cells too

small to see with the naked eye
• In a light microscope (LM), visible light passes
through a specimen and then through glass lenses,
which magnify the image
Figure 1: Microscopy
 Onion bulb Prepration of onion specimen

nucleus

Cell structure of onion Microscopy

• The quality of an image depends on:
- Magnification, the ratio of an object’s image size to
its real size
- Resolution, the measure of the clarity of the image
- Contrast, visible differences in parts of the sample
 TECHNIQUE RESULTS

(a) Brightfield
(unstained specimen)

50 µm
(b) Brightfield
(stained specimen)
• Two basic types of electron microscopes (EMs)
are used to study subcellular structures
• Scanning electron microscopes (SEMs) focus a
beam of electrons onto the surface of a
specimen, providing images that look 3-D
• Transmission electron microscopes (TEMs)
focus a beam of electrons through a specimen
• TEMs are used mainly to study the internal
structure of cells
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Figure 2: The size range of cells
1.2 Cell Fractionation
• Cell fractionation takes cells apart and separates major organelles
from one another.
• Centrifuges fractionate cells into their component parts at very high
speed.
• Cell fractionation enables scientists to determine the functions of
organelles.


+

Different organelles
of the cell
 Figure 4: Centrifugation process

supernatant

pellet
supernatant

pellet supernatant

pellet

pellet
Concept 6.2:
Eukaryotic cells have internal membranes that
compartmentalize their functions

• The basic structural and functional unit of every

organism is one of two types of cells:
prokaryotic or eukaryotic
• Only organisms of the domains Bacteria and
Archaea consist of prokaryotic cells
• Protists, fungi, animals, and plants all consist of
eukaryotic cells

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Figure 5: The cell structure of Eukaryote and Prokaryote
• In eukaryotes, nucleus is a membrane-bound organelle that houses
the genetic material. The nucleus consists of DNA packaged in
chromatin fibres with proteins.
• In prokaryotes, nucleoid contain the genetic material in the cytoplasm
and consist of a single chromosome.
Figure 6: Binary fission in Prokaryote (bacteria)
cytoplasm

nucleoid

• The asexual reproduction.

• One parent cell into two new daughter cells.
• Duplicate genetic material and then divides into two parts, with
each new daughter cell get identical copy of genetic material.
Figure 7: Types of cell division in Eukaryote (plant and animal cells)

- 1 parent cell  2
new daugter cells
(the same genetic
material)
- Regeneration and
replacement of old
and damaged tissues

Responsible for
the formation of
gametes via for
sexual
reproduction
 2.1 Comparing Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
• Basic features of all cells:
– Plasma membrane (also known as cell membrane)
– Semifluid substance called cytosol
– Chromosomes (carry genes)
– Ribosomes (make proteins)
• Prokaryotic cells are characterized by having
– DNA in an unbound region called the nucleoid
– No membrane-bound organelles. Cytoplasm bound by the
plasma membrane
• Eukaryotic cells are characterized by having
– DNA in a nucleus that is bounded by a membranous nuclear
envelope. Cytoplasm in the region between the plasma
membrane and nucleus
• Eukaryotic cells are generally much larger than prokaryotic cells.
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Conjugation pilus
2.2 A Panoramic View of the Eukaryotic Cell

• A eukaryotic cell has internal membranes that

partition the cell into organelles
• Plant and animal cells have most of the same
organelles

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Concept 6.3:
The eukaryotic cell’s genetic instructions are
housed in the nucleus and carried out by the
ribosomes

• The nucleus contains most of the DNA in a

eukaryotic cell
• Ribosomes use the information from the DNA
to make proteins

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3.1 The Nucleus: Information Central

• The nucleus contains most of the cell’s genes

and is usually the most conspicuous organelle
• The nuclear envelope encloses the nucleus,
separating it from the cytoplasm
• The nuclear membrane is a double membrane;
each membrane consists of a lipid bilayer
• Pores regulate the entry and exit of RNAs and
protein molecules from the nucleus

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Figure 13: The nucleus and its envelope
• DNA is organized into chromosomes to carry
the genetic information.
• Each chromosome contains one long DNA
molecule associated with many histone
proteins.
• The purpose is to coil DNA molecule into
histone proteins and reduce its length to fit into
the nucleus.
• The complex of DNA and proteins making up
chromosomes is called chromatin
3.2 Ribosomes: Protein Factories

• Ribosomes are the cellular components that

carry out protein synthesis
• Ribosomes carry out protein synthesis in two
locations:
– In the cytosol (free ribosomes)
– On the outside of the endoplasmic reticulum or
the nuclear envelope (bound ribosomes)

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Figure 14: Ribosomes
Concept 6.4:
The endomembrane system regulates protein
traffic and performs metabolic functions in the cell

• Different organelles with different functions found

in the eukaryotic cell, including endoplasmic
reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, lysosomes,
vacuoles and the plasma membrane.
• They help the synthesis of proteins, transport of
proteins into membranes and organelles or out of
the cell, metabolism and movement of lipids and
detoxification of poisons

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4.1 The Endoplasmic Reticulum: Biosynthetic Factory
• Quite large and dynamic structure.

• It plays many roles in the cell, including calcium

storage, protein synthesis and lipid metabolism.
• Two main regions of the ER: smooth and rough
ERs.
• The function of smooth ER: produce lipids and
detoxify toxins in the body in the liver and kidney
cells.
• The function of rough ER: produce proteins in the
cells and ribosomes are attached to their surface.
Figure 15: Endoplasmic reticulum
(ER)
4.2 The Golgi Apparatus: Shipping and Receiving Center
• The Golgi apparatus consists of flattened membranous
sacs called cisternae
• There are two sides of Golgi: cis face and trans face as
the receiving and shipping departments.
• Products of ER are modified during their transit from the
cis region to the trans region. For example, glycoproteins
is the product of the ER passed to Golgi. The Golgi
removes some sugar monomers to produce a large
variety of carbohydrates.
• Golgi apparatus also manufactures some
macromolecules. For example, pectins are made in the
Golgi of plant cells and then joined with cellulose into
their cell walls.
 Figure 16: The Golgi apparatus
cis face
(“receiving” side of 0.1 µm
Golgi apparatus) Cisternae

trans face
(“shipping” side of TEM of Golgi apparatus
Golgi apparatus)
4.3 Lysosomes: Digestive Compartments

• A lysosome is a membranous sac of hydrolytic

enzymes that can digest macromolecules
• Lysosomal enzymes can hydrolyze proteins, fats,
polysaccharides, and nucleic acids
• Some types of cell can engulf another cell by
phagocytosis; this forms a food vacuole
• A lysosome fuses with the food vacuole and
digests the molecules
• Lysosomes also use enzymes to recycle the cell’s
own organelles and macromolecules, a process
called autophagy
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4.4 Vacuoles: Diverse Maintenance Compartments
• Unicellular protists living in fresh water have
contractile vacuoles that pump excess water out
of the cell to maintain a suitable concentration of
ions and molecules inside the cell.
• In plants, small vacuoles can hold reserves of
important organic compounds, such as the
proteins stockpiled in the storage cells in seeds.
• Help protect the plant against herbivores by
storing compounds that are poisonous to animals.
• Some plant vacuoles contain pigments, such as
the red and blue pigments of petals that help
attract pollinating insects to flowers.
• Mature plant cells contain a large central vacuole by the
combination of smaller vacuoles. The solution inside the
central vacuole, called cell sap, is the plant cell’s
repository of inorganic ions such as potassium and
chloride. The central vacuole plays a major role in the
growth of plant cells such as to absorb water to enlarge
the vacuole.
• Both plant and animal cells have vacuoles.
• A plant cell contains a large, singular vacuole that is used
for storage and maintaining the shape of the cell.
• Animal cells have many, smaller vacuoles.
 Figure 17: The plant cell vacuole

Central vacuole

Cytosol

Nucleus Central
vacuole

Cell wall

Chloroplast

5 µm
Concept 6.5:
Mitochondria and chloroplasts change energy from
one form to another
• Mitochondria are the sites of cellular respiration, a
metabolic process that generates ATP
• Chloroplasts, found in plants and algae, are the
sites of photosynthesis
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts
– Have a double/three membrane
– Have proteins made by free ribosomes
– Contain their own DNA
5.1 Mitochondria:
Chemical Energy Conversion
• Mitochondria are in nearly all eukaryotic cells

• Some cells have a single large mitochondrion

(protists), but usually a cell has hundreds or even
thousands of mitochondria (human liver cells).
• Each of the two membranes enclosing the
mitochondrion is a phospholipid bilayer.
• The outer membrane is smooth, but the inner
membrane is convoluted, with infoldings called
cristae.
• The inner membrane divides the mitochondrion into two
internal compartments. The first is the intermembrane
space, the narrow region between the inner and outer
membranes.
• The second compartment, the mitochondrial matrix, is
enclosed by the inner membrane. The matrix contains
many different enzymes (monoamine oxidase, rotenone-
insensitive NADH-cytochrome c-reductase, kynurenine
hydroxylase and fatty acid Co-A ligase) and the
mitochondrial DNA and ribosomes.
• Cristae present a large surface area for enzymes that
synthesize ATP
Figure 18: The mitochondrion, site of cellular respiration
 5.2 Chloroplasts: Capture of Light Energy
• Contain the green pigment chlorophyll and enzymes
(RUBISCO, NADP-Reductase, ATP synthase, Glyceraldehyde-
3-phosphate dehydrogenase, and chlorophyllase) have the
function to produce sugar in the photosynthesis.
• Chloroplasts are found in leaves and other green organs of
plants and in algae.
• Inside the chloroplast is thylakoids.

• Thylakoids are stacked like pancake; each stack is called a

granum. The fluid outside the thylakoids is the stroma, which
contains the chloroplast DNA and ribosomes and enzymes.
• Three membranes: the intermembrane space, inner and outer
membrane. These compartments help the chloroplast convert
light energy to chemical energy during photosynthesis.
Figure 19: The chloroplast, site of photosynthesis
Concept 6.6:
The cytoskeleton is a network of fibers that organizes
structures and activities in the cell
• Cytoskeleton is a network of fibers organizing
structures and activities in the cell.
• It is composed of three types of molecular
structures:
– Microtubules
– Microfilaments
– Intermediate filaments

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Figure 20: The cytoskeleton
6.1 Roles of the Cytoskeleton:
Support, Motility, and Regulation

• The function of the cytoskeleton is to maintain

the cell’s shape
• Regulate biochemical activities necessary for
cell survival.

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6.2 Components of the Cytoskeleton

• Three main types of fibers make up the

cytoskeleton:
– Microtubules are the thickest of the three
components of the cytoskeleton with 25
nanometers (nm) in diameter
– Microfilaments, also called actin filaments, are
the thinnest components (5 – 9 nm)
– Intermediate filaments are fibers with
diameters in a middle range (8 – 12 nm)

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6.2.1 Microtubules

• Microtubules are hollow rods about 25 nm in

diameter and about 200 nm to 25 micrometers
long
• Functions of microtubules:
– Shaping the cell
– Guiding movement of organelles
– Separating chromosomes during cell division

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6.2.2 Microfilaments (Actin Filaments)

• Microfilaments are solid rods about 7 nm in

diameter, built as a twisted double chain of
actin subunits
• The structural role of microfilaments is to bear
tension, resisting pulling forces within the cell
• They form a 3-D network called the cortex just
inside the plasma membrane to help support
the cell’s shape

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6.2.3 Intermediate Filaments

• Intermediate filaments range in diameter from

8–12 nanometers, larger than microfilaments
but smaller than microtubules
• They support cell shape and fix organelles in
place
• Intermediate filaments are more permanent
cytoskeleton fixtures than the other two classes

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Concept 6.7:
Extracellular components and connections between
cells help coordinate cellular activities

• Most cells synthesize and secrete materials

that are external to the plasma membrane
• These extracellular structures include:
– Cell walls of plants
– The extracellular matrix (ECM) of animal cells
– Intercellular junctions

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7.1 Cell Walls of Plants
• Cell wall is an extracellular structure of plant cells.

• Cell wall is not present in animal cells.

• The wall protects the plant cell, maintains its shape

and prevents excessive uptake of water.
• Prokaryotes, fungi also have cell walls.

• Plant cell walls are much thicker than the plasma

membrane, ranging from 0.1 µm to several
micrometers.
• Plant cell walls are made of cellulose fibers
embedded in other polysaccharides and protein.
• Plant cell wall has multiple layers.

- A young plant cell has a thin and flexible wall called

the primary cell wall.
- Between primary walls of adjacent cells is the middle
lamella, a thin layer rich in sticky polysaccharides
called pectins. The middle lamella glues adjacent
cells together. When the cell matures and stops
growing, it strengthens its wall.
- Secondary cell wall between the plasma membrane
and the primary wall which usually deposited in
several laminated layers. It has a strong and durable
matrix to afford the cell protection and support. For
example, wood consists mainly of secondary walls
Figure 21: Plant cell walls
7.2 The Extracellular Matrix (ECM) of Animal Cells

• Animal cells lack cell walls but are covered by an

elaborate extracellular matrix (ECM)
• The ECM is made up of glycoproteins such as
collagen, proteoglycans, and fibronectin
• Functions of the ECM:
– Support
– Adhesion
– Movement
– Regulation

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7.3 Intercellular Junctions

• Cells in an animal or plant are organized into

tissues, organs, and organ systems.
Neighboring cells often adhere, interact, and
communicate via sites of direct physical contact.
• There are several types of intercellular junctions
– Plasmodesmata
– Tight junctions
– Desmosomes
– Gap junctions

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7.3.1 Plasmodesmata in Plant Cells

• Plasmodesmata are channels that perforate

plant cell walls
• Through plasmodesmata, water and small
solutes (and sometimes proteins and RNA) can
pass from cell to cell

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Figure 22: Plasmodesmata between plant cells

Cell walls

Interior
of cell

Interior
of cell
0.5 µm Plasmodesmata Plasma membranes
7.3.2 Tight Junctions, Desmosomes, and Gap
Junctions in Animal Cells
• At tight junctions, membranes of neighboring cells
are pressed together
• Desmosomes (anchoring junctions) fasten cells
together into strong sheets
• Gap junctions (communicating junctions) provide
cytoplasmic channels between adjacent cells

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Figure 23: Exploring Cell Junctions in Animal Tissues
6.4 The Cell:
A Living Unit Greater Than the Sum of Its Parts

• Cells rely on the integration of structures and

organelles in order to function

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You should now be able to:

1. Distinguish between the following pairs of

terms: magnification and resolution;
prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell; free and
bound ribosomes; smooth and rough ER

2. Describe the structure and function of the

components of the endomembrane system

3. Briefly explain the role of mitochondria,

chloroplasts, and peroxisomes

4. Describe the functions of the cytoskeleton

5. Compare the structure and functions of
microtubules, microfilaments, and
intermediate filaments

6. Explain how the ultrastructure of cilia and

flagella relate to their functions

7. Describe the structure of a plant cell wall

8. Describe the structure and roles of the

extracellular matrix in animal cells

9. Describe four different intercellular junctions