Unit 1

Computer Systems and

Organisation (CSO)
CHAPTER – 01
COMPUTER
FUNDAMENTALS
UNIT I
Computer Systems and Organisation
(CSO)
What you are going to study in this Unit II?

 Basic computer organisation: description of

a computer system and mobile
 system, CPU, memory, hard disk, I/O,
battery.
 Types of software: application, System,
utility.
 Memory Units: bit, byte, MB, GB, TB, and
PB.
 Boolean logic: OR, AND, NAND, NOR,
XOR, NOT, truth tables, De Morgan’s laws
What you are going to study in this Unit II?

 Strings: ASCII, UTF8, UTF32, ISCII (Indian

script code), Unicode
 Basic concepts of Flowchart
 Concept of Compiler & Interpreter
 Running a program: Notion of an operating
system, how an operating system
 runs a program, idea of loading, operating
system as a resource manager.
 Concept of cloud computing, cloud
(public/private), introduction to parallel
computing
 UNIT I
Computer Fundamentals
After studying this session students will be
able to:
Learn about various generations of computer

Understand the basic operation of a computer

Study the functional components and their

interconnections

Understand the concept of booting

Learn about classification of computers

What is Computer?
 A computer is a device that can
be instructed to carry out sequences
of arithmetic or logical operations
automatically. Modern computers have the
ability to follow generalized sets of
operations, called programs. These programs
enable computers to perform an extremely
wide range of tasks.

 Source Wikipedia
What is Data?
 Data. Data in a computer terminology mean
raw facts and figures.
 For ex-mohan,1977 etc.

What is Information?

means what we get after processing.

Data Vs. Information?

 you should understand that what goes in the

computers is data and what comes out of them
is information.

 This process of turning data into information

is also known as information processing
cycle.
BASIC COMPUTER ORGANISATION
BASIC COMPUTER ORGANISATION

Computer organisation refers to

logical structure of a computer how its
components are connected to one
another
Register
ALU
s
Control Memory

Memory Memory Memory

Functional components of a Computer

 Input Unit

 CPU

 Output Unit

 Memory
Input Unit
 The input unit consists of input
devices that are attached to the
computer.
 These devices take input and
convert it into binary language
that the computer understands.
 Some of the common input
devices are keyboard, mouse,
joystick, scanner etc.
Input Unit
Central Processing Unit(CPU)
 Once the information is entered
into the computer by the input
device, the processor processes
it.
 The CPU is called the brain of the
computer because it is the control
centre of the computer.
 As the CPU is located on a
small chip, it is also called the
Microprocessor.
Central Processing Unit(CPU)
 The CPU has three main
components which are
responsible for different
functions –
 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU),

 Control Unit (CU) &

 Memory registers.
Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
 The ALU, as its name suggests
performs mathematical
calculations and takes logical
decisions. Arithmetic
calculations include addition,
subtraction, multiplication and
division.
 Logical decisions involve
comparison of two data items
to see which one is larger or
CU Control Unit (CU)
 The Control unit coordinates
and controls the data flow in
and out of CPU and also
controls all the operations of
ALU, memory registers and also
input/output units.
 It is also responsible for carrying
out all the instructions stored in
the program.
MR Memory Registers
 A register is a temporary unit of
memory in the CPU.

 These receive data/information

and then this data/information is
held in them as per the
requirement.
 Output Unit
The output unit consists of output
devices that are attached with the
computer.

It converts the binary data coming

from CPU to human
understandable from. The

common output devices are

monitor, printer, plotter etc.
Classification of Computers
Classification of Computers

The computers can be classified

based on the technology being used
as:

Digital Computers

 Analog Computers &

Hybrid Computers
 Digital Computers

These computers are capable of

processing information in discrete
form.

In digital technology data which

can be in the form of letters,
symbols or numbers is represented
in binary form i.e. 0s and 1s.
 Digital Computers

Binary digits are easily expressed

in a digital computer by the
presence (1) or absence (0) of
current or voltage.

It computes by counting and

adding operations.
 Digital Computers

The digital computers are used in

industrial, business and scientific
applications.

They are quite suitable for large

volume data processing.
 Digital Computers

EXAMPLES:

IBM PC, HP, LENOVO,

DELL, ...etc

Apple Macintosh

Calculators
 Analog Computers

An Analog computer works on

continuously changeable aspects of
physical phenomenon such as fluid
pressure, mechanical motion and
electrical quantities.

These computers measure

changes in continuous physical
quantities say current and voltage.
 Analog Computers

These computers are used to

process data generated by ongoing
physical processes.

A thermometer is an example of
an analog computer since it
measures the change in mercury
level continuously.
 Analog Computers

Although the accuracy of an

analog computer is less as
compared to digital computers, yet
it is used to process data generated
by changing physical quantities
especially when the response to
change is fast.
 Analog Computers
Most present day Analog
computers are well suited to
simulating systems. A simulator
helps to conduct experiments
repeatedly in real time
environment.

Some of the common examples

are simulations in aircrafts, nuclear
power plants, hydraulic and
 Analog Computers
Examples

 Thermometer.

Analog clock.

 Speedometer.

 Tire pressure gauge.

Analog Computers
 Analog Computers
 Boeing B-29
Superfortress Central Fire Control
System
Deltar
Kerrison Predictor
Leonardo Torres y Quevedo's
Analogue Calculating Machines
based on "fusee sans fin"
Librascope, aircraft weight and
balance computer
 Analog Computers
ADVANTAGES:

Analog computer has come to refer

to
devices and media that represent:

Store images

Sound, motion pictures, etc.

 Analog Computers
DISADVANTAGES:

 Analog computers can have a

very wide range of complexity.

Slide rules and monographs are

the simplest, while naval gun fire
control computers and large hybrid
digital/analog computers were
among the most complicated.
 Analog Computers
DISADVANTAGES:

Very complicated for containing

output for the users some time.
 Hybrid Computers
These use both analog and digital
technology.

It has the speed of analog

computer and the accuracy of a
digital computer.

 It may accept digital or analog

signals but an extensive conversion
of data from digital to analog and
 Hybrid Computers

Generally the analog components

provide efficient processing of
differential equations while the
digital part deals with logical
operations of the system.

Hence benefits of both analog

and digital computing are readily
available.
 Hybrid Computers

 Hybrid Computers are used as a

cost effective means for complex
simulations.
Examples: Computer used in
hospitals to measure the heartbeat
of the patient. Devices used
in petrol pump.
 Hybrid Computers

A hybrid computer exhibits features

of both analog computers and digital
computers. It applies the real-time
speed of the analog computer and
the accuracy of the digital computer
to the solution of problems that are
beyond the capabilities of either. An
example was the HYDAC 2400, a
hybrid computer released by EAI in
1963.
 Hybrid Computers

An example was the HYDAC 2400, a hybrid

computer released by EAI in 1963.
Hybrid Computers
Classification of Digital Computers

 The digital computers are

classified according to their
computing capabilities.
Classification of Digital Computers
 The various types of digital
computers are :

Micro Computers

Mini Computers

Main Frames

Super Computers
 Micro Computers

These are also known as Personal

Computers. These type of digital
computer uses a microprocessor (a
CPU on a single chip) and include
both desktops and laptops.
 Micro Computers

These computers can work on

small volume of data, are very
versatile and can handle variety of
applications. These computers are
being used as work stations, CAD,
multimedia and advertising
applications.
 Micro Computers

Small portable computers such as

PDAs (Personal Digital Assistants)
and tablets with wireless
computing technology are
increasingly becoming popular.
Micro Computers
Micro Computers
Micro Computers
Micro Computers
 Mini Computers
These computers can support
multiple users working
simultaneously on the same
machine.

These are mainly used in an

organization where computers
installed in various departments
are interconnected. These
computers are useful for small
business organizations.
 Mini Computers
Examples

Control Data's CDC 160A and

CDC 1700.
DEC PDP and VAX series.
Data General Nova.
Hewlett-Packard HP 3000 series,
HP 2100 series, HP1000 series.
 Mini Computers
Examples

Honeywell-Bull DPS 6/DPS 6000

series.
IBM midrange computers.
Interdata 7/32 and 8/32.
Varian 620 100 series.
 Mini Computers
Examples

Honeywell-Bull DPS 6/DPS 6000

series.
IBM midrange computers.
Interdata 7/32 and 8/32.
Varian 620 100 series.
Mainframe Computers
These computers are large and
very powerful computers with very
high memory capacity.

These can process huge databases

such as census at extremely fast
rate. They are suitable for big
organizations, banks, industries
etc. and can support hundreds of
users simultaneously on the
network.
Mainframe Computers
History of IBM mainframes, 1952–
presentMarket name700/7000 series
System/360
System/370
IBM 308X
IBM 3090
System/390
zSeries 900, 800, 990, and 890
System z9
System z10
Mainframe Computers
History of IBM mainframes, 1952–
present Market name 700/7000
series
zEnterprise System (z196, zEC12,
z13, z14)
ArchitectureSystem/360
System/370
S/370-XA
ESA/370
ESA/390
z/Architecture
 Super Computers

These are fastest and very

expensive computers.

They can execute billions of

instructions per second.
 Super Computers

These are multiprocessor,

parallel systems suitable for
specialized complex scientific
applications involving huge
amounts of mathematical
applications such as weather
forecasting.
 Super Computers

The main difference between a

supercomputer and a mainframe is
that a supercomputer executes
fewer programs as fast as possible
whereas a mainframe executes
many programs concurrently.
 Super Computers
Year Supercomputer Location

2016 Sunway TaihuLight Wuxi, China

2013 NUDT Tianhe-2 Guangzhou, China

2012 Cray Titan Oak Ridge, U.S.

2012 IBM Sequoia Livermore, U.S.

2011 Fujitsu K computer Kobe, Japan

2010 Tianhe-IA Tianjin, China
2009 Cray Jaguar Oak Ridge, U.S.

2008 IBM Roadrunner Los Alamos, U.S.

 Hardware and Software
A computer consists of both hardware
and software and both are equally
important for
the working of the computer system.

The electronic components of a

computer system that we can see and
touch are called hardware.

Software is a general term used for

computer programs that control the
operations of the computer.
Hardware and Software
 Hardware and Software
A program is a sequence of
instructions that perform a particular
task. A set of programs form a software.

It is the software which gives hardware

its capability.

Hardware is of no use without

software and software cannot be used
without hardware.
 Types of Software

Software can be broadly are

categorized as:

System Software

Application Software

Utility Software
Types of Software
 System Software

System Software is the software

that is directly related to
coordinating computer operations
and performs tasks associated
with controlling and utilizing
computer hardware. These
programs assist in running
application programs and are
designed to control the operation
of a computer system.
 System Software

System software directs the

computer what to do, when to do
and how to do. System software
can be further categorized into:-

Operating System

Language Translators
 Operating System

 An Operating system is the

most important system software.

It is a set of programs that

control and supervise the
hardware of a computer and also
provide services to application
software, programmers and users.
Ex :-
 Operating System

Some of the popular operating

systems used in personal
computers are DOS, Windows,
Unix, Linux, Solaris, etc.
COMPILERS AND INTERPRETERS
 COMPILER
Its a translator used to convert HLL
to MLL and vice versa.
 COMPILER
Its a translator used to convert HLL to
MLL and vice versa.
 INTERPRETER
Its a translator used to convert HLL
to MLL and vice versa.
 INTERPRETER
Its a translator used to convert HLL
to MLL and vice versa.
 Application Software

An application software is bought

by the user to perform specific
applications or tasks.

Say for example making a

document or making a presentation
or handling inventory or managing
the employee database.
 Application Software

 An application software can be of

two types:
General Purpose Application
Software &

Customized Application
software.
Application Software - General
Purpose Application Software
 Some of the application software
is made for the common users for
day to day applications and uses.

These are also referred as Office

Tools.

 The users may use them in the

manner they want.
Application Software - General
Purpose Application Software
 Some of the popular types of
general purpose application
software are:
Word Processor

Presentation Tools

Spreadsheet Packages

Database Management System

Application Software - Customized
Software
Customized Software is one
which is tailor made as per the
user’s requirement. Such type of
software is customer specific.

 It is made keeping in mind the

individual needs of the user and so
are also referred as Domain
Specific Tools
Application Software - Customized
Software
Examples:
Inventory Management System &
Purchasing System
School Management System
Payroll System
Financial Accounting
Hotel Management
Reservation System
Weather Forecasting system
MEMORY CONCEPTS
 Memory

Memory is one of the most

important components of a
computer system as it stores data
and instructions.

Every memory chip contains

thousands of memory locations.
In the computer, the data is
stored in the form of bits and
bytes.
 Memory

A bit is the smallest storage unit

of memory. A nibble is a
collection of 4 bits. Eight bits
combined together to form a
single byte, which in turn
represents a single character
Memory Units
Memory Units
 Permanent
Temporary Storage areas
Storage
areas
1 2 3 4
Storage
CPU Cache RAM Devices

ROM/BIOS
Level 1 Physical
Removable
Devices
Registers
Network/
Internet
Storage
Level 2 Virtual
Hard
Drives
Types of Memories

The computer memories can be

divided into following categories:

Primary Memory

Cache Memory

Secondary memory
Primary Memory
Primary memory or main
memory is a Metal Oxide
Semiconductor (MOS)
memory used for storing
program and data during the
execution of the program. It
is directly accessible to CPU.
Primary Memory

Broadly primary memory

can be of two types :–

1. RAM (Random Access

Memory)
2. ROM (Read only memory).
Random Access Memory (RAM)
the memory can be accessed
from any desired location
randomly.

The instructions and data that

we input into the computer are
stored in
the RAM of the Computer.

It is a read/write memory, so

Random Access Memory (RAM)
It is a volatile memory and loses
its contents when the power is
switched off or interrupted.
Nowadays RAMs are available
in gigabytes. The normal memory
access time of a RAM is 20-80 ns.
Random Access Memory (RAM)
RAM can be broadly classified
into two categories:

Dynamic RAM (DRAM) and

 Static RAM (SRAM).

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
It consists of a transistor and a
capacitor that stores electric
charge.

The DRAMs are physically

smaller, cheaper and slower
memories. They are slower
because the data stored in them
needs to continuously refreshed
and this consumes lot of processor
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)
Each refresh operation takes
several CPU cycles to complete.
This is because a capacitor tends
to loose charge over a period of
time which needs to be refreshed
again and again.
 Static RAM
This type of RAM is large in
physical size but is an expensive
and faster memory.

It is faster because it is made up

of flip flops to store data and
these flip flops do not require any
refreshing.
 Static RAM
Static RAM is also volatile and
is easier to use as compared to
dynamic RAM. These are used in
specialized applications.
DRAM Vs. Static RAM
 ROM
Its non volatile memory, ie, the
information stored in it, is not lost
even if the power supply goes off.
It’s used for the permanent storage
of information. It also posses
random access property.
Information can not be written
into a ROM by the
users/programmers. In other
words the contents of ROMs are
 Types of ROM
(i) PROM : It’s programmable
ROM. Its contents are decided by
the user. The user can store
permanent programs, data etc in a
PROM. The data is fed into it
using a PROM programs.
 Types of ROM
(ii) EPROM : An EPROM is an
erasable PROM. The stored data
in EPROM’s can be erased by
exposing it to UV light for about
20 min. It’s not easy to erase it
because the EPROM IC has to be
removed from the computer and
exposed to UV light. The entire
data is erased and not selected
portions by the user. EPROM’s are
 Types of ROM
(iii) EEPROM (Electrically
Erasable PROM) : The chip can be
erased & reprogrammed on the
board easily byte by byte. It can
be erased with in a few
milliseconds. There is a limit on
the number of times the
EEPROM’s can be reprogrammed,
i.e.; usually around 10,000 times.
 Flash Memory
Its an electrically erasable &
programmable permanent type
memory. It uses one transistor
memory all resulting in high
packing density, low power
consumption, lower cost & higher
reliability. Its used in all power,
digital cameras, MP3 players etc.
 Cache Memory
 Cache memory is a special high
speed memory made up of high
speed static RAMs.

It is used to hold frequently

accessed data and instructions.

We know that the processing

speed of CPU is much more than
the main memory access time of
 Cache Memory

This means the CPU has to wait

for a substantial amount of time.

Alternatively we have the cache

memory which is a small,
expensive but fast memory that is
placed between the CPU and the
main memory.
 Cache Memory
Whenever some data is required,
the CPU first looks into cache.

If data is found, we call it a

cache hit and the information is
transferred to the CPU.

In case of a miss, the main

memory is accessed.
 Cache Memory
There are two types of cache
memory:
L1 cache: It is small and is built
inside the CPU. It is fast as
compared to L2 cache

L2 cache: It is large but slower

and is mounted on the
motherboard
Secondary Memory
 Secondary Memory

The major limitation of primary

memory is that it has limited
storage capacity and is volatile.

To overcome this limitation we

have secondary memory storage
devices. This type of memory is
also called external memory. For
example Floppy disk, hard disk,
USB drives, CD/DVDs
 Hard disk

A hard disk consists of one or more

circular disks called platters which
are mounted on a common spindle.
Each surface of a platter is coated
with a magnetic material. Both
surfaces of each disk are capable of
storing data except the top and
bottom disk where only the inner
surface is used.
 Hard disk

The information is recorded on the

surface of the rotating disk by
magnetic read/write heads. These
heads are joined to a common arm
known as access arm. This arm
moves over the surface of the
rotating disk as shown in the figure
(next slide)
Rotating Arm of Hard disk
 Hard disk
Information is recorded on each of
these disks in the form of concentric
circles called tracks which are
further divided into sectors. Hard
drives however, are not very
portable and are primarily used
internally in a computer system. But
external hard disks are also
available as a substitute for
portable storage. Today the hard
disks have the storage capacity of
OPTICAL DISKS
 OPTICAL DISKS
An optical disk is primarily used as a
portable and secondary storage device. It can
store more data than the previous generation of
magnetic storage media, and has a relatively
longer lifespan. Compact disks (CD), digital
versatile/video disks (DVD) and Blu-ray disks
are currently the most commonly used forms of
optical disks. These disks are generally used to:
Distribute software to customers.
Store large amounts of data such as music,
images and videos.
Transfer data to different computers or
devices.
Batteries
 Batteries

What is battery? Courtesy: Wikipedia

A battery is a device consisting of one or
more electrochemical cells with external
connections provided to power electrical
devices such as flashlights, smartphones,
and electric cars. When a battery is
supplying electric power, its positive
terminal is the cathode and its negative
terminal is the anode.
Computer Batteries
 Computer Batteries

There are three computer batteries types

used with computers

1. Backup Battery (CMOS)

2. Bridge Battery

3. Main Battery
 1. Backup Battery (CMOS)

The Complementary Metal-Oxide

Semiconductor chip usually abbreviated as
CMOS chip is powered by the CMOS
battery. The CMOS battery, unlike the
other battery types is present in each and
every computer. They are small in size
(coin-sized) and generally the lifetime of
the motherboard (say 10 years). The actual
function of this CMOS battery is to power
the CMOS chip which stores the clock
settings and hardware settings.
 2. Bridge Battery

The Bridge battery is not part of every

computer. It is only limited to the laptops
and that too not in all of them. So as the
name suggests, it is an auxiliary power
source which keeps laptop alive when the
main battery is replaced. It is not as big or
powerful as main battery but can take care of
the power requirements in that short span of
time. Most people know it by the name,
backup battery.
 3. Main Battery

The Main battery is the ultimate

alternative source that makes laptops portable.
It has the capacity to store charge and supply it
to the components whenever required. These
are made of several distinct battery
technologies and here are a few popular
technologies among the lot:

1. Nickel
Cadmium (NiCd)
2. Lithium Ion (Li-ion)
 3. Main Battery

3. Nickel Metal Hydride (NiMH)

4. Lithium Ion Polymer (Li-ion polymer)

Most of the present laptops are equipped

with Lithium ion and Lithium Polymer
batteries.
Thank You