Working with

tables and figures

Academic Skills, Trent University
2020
www.trentu.ca/academicskills
Why use a table or figure?

• Help summarize your data.

• Supplement and simplify explanations in your text.

• Provide evidence to support an argument or idea.

• Visually explain complicated trends or patterns.

Reflect and then create

• Keep in mind who will be looking at your table or figure. Ask yourself – what do you want to explain
to your reader?

• Determine the type of data you will be presenting (i.e. discrete, continuous, or categorical).

• Consider the best format to illustrate and explain your information. Should you use a table or figure?
What type of figure?

• Make it easy to understand (i.e. clear and accurate).

• Always include a caption.

What is a table?

Tables

• Data are organized in columns and rows by headings.

• Logically arrange complex data.

• Useful for comparing specific values or organizing multiple units of measurement.

What is a figure?

Figures

• Data are depicted in graphs, maps, diagrams, photographs, or drawings.

• Provide a concise visual presentation of your data.

• Useful for showing the general trend, pattern, or relationship among many variables.
Tables
Step 1: Plan your table

• Design a table so it is easy to read both horizontally and vertically.

• Keep column and row headings simple but informative.

• Consider drawing out the table on paper first before making an electronic version.
Step 2: Create and format your table

• Software such as Microsoft Word or Excel can help you construct a table.

• Double check that any calculations in your table are correct and the values make sense.

• Make sure the table’s label, variable names, and data values match the label, names, and values

referred to in the text.

• Remember to indicate the units of measurement.

• Align decimal points.

• Be consistent with spacing, placement of headings, alignment of the text, font, capitalization, significant

figures, etc.

• Format the size of your table, font, and symbols based on the referencing style you are using.
Key Elements of a Table
• Table caption (placed above the table)
• Lines are used to clearly separate information, such as the column headings
from the data, in the table. Use the fewest number of gridlines as possible for
simplicity and clarity
• Read a row (also called a record) horizontally.
• Read a column (also called a field) vertically.
• A cell is where a column and a row intersect. It contains only one unit of data.
• Footnotes help provide more information about a specific cell or statistical
significance. A footnote contains a symbol such as an asterisk (*) and a short
explanation placed at the bottom of the table.
Example table with key elements
Figures
First step – determine the type of data you are working with

• Continuous data – numbers measured on a continuum or scale (e.g.

time, temperature, height, weight, length, etc.).

• Discrete data – whole numbers that are usually counted (e.g. number of
birds observed in the field, number of plants in a quadrat, etc.).

• Categorical data – represent categories such as characteristics, names,

or labels (e.g. fish species, blood types, income levels, etc.)
Second step – determine the dependent and
independent variables
• A coordinate grid has two perpendicular lines called axes.
• The horizontal axis of a coordinate grid is known as the x-axis.
• The independent variable is usually on the x-axis.
• The independent variable changes and influences the dependent variable.
• The dependent variable is on the vertical line or y-axis.
• The dependent variable is a variable that responds to change.
Example Coordinate Grid
Third step – pick the most appropriate figure to portray
your data

Use the following as a guideline:

• Line graph – depicts relationships between continuous data. Consider using when showing trends over time
(e.g. temperatures recorded at the Trent Climate Station since 1992).

• Scatterplot – depicts relationships between continuous data. Scatterplots are frequently used when you
have two variables and one is dependent on the other (e.g. comparing the length and weight of individual
fish). However, it is still possible to use this type of graph to depict relationships without a dependent variable.

• Histogram – generally used to group continuous or discrete data into ranges to determine how frequently a
value occurs (e.g. determining the most common weight of individual frogs included in a study).

• Bar graph – compares proportions or count data. Consider using when the independent variable is not
continuous (e.g. comparing the height of different tree species).
Third step (continued) – pick the most appropriate figure
to portray your data

Use the following as a guideline:

• Map – portrays spatial data (e.g. locations of study sites).

• Diagram – simplified illustrations that represent connections or relationships between ideas,

concepts, structures, or equipment (e.g. a diagram depicting the effects of climate change on
precipitation and temperature).

• Photographs or drawings – detailed and accurate illustrations of experimental equipment in the

field or laboratory, organisms, cell structures, or medical conditions (e.g. a leaf’s structure under a
microscope).
Figures – Graphs

• Graphs are a type of figure that show relationships between different variables.

• Four common types of graphs are:

• Line graphs

• Scatterplots

• Histograms

• Bar graphs
Line graph

• Depicts relationships between continuous data.

• There is usually only one data point for each unit of x.

• Plot data points using x and y coordinates and connect them by a line.

• Line graphs are useful to reveal the rate of change between individual data points.
Key elements of a Line Graph
• When you create a line graph, remember to
• Use an appropriate scale (remember you are trying to show changes between data
points)
• Label the y-axis and indicate the unit of measurement
• Label the x-axis
• Remove grid lines
• Connect data points by a line
• Figure caption (placed below the figure)
• Example on next slide depicts annual flow rates in cubic meters for Fishy River between
2000 and 2005 measured by area-velocity flow meters at the Pickerel Stop Monitoring
Station.
• The year is on the x-axis and flow in cubic meters is on the y-axis.
• The lowest flow occurred in 2000 at 17 cubic meters. The highest flow occurred in
2004 at 22 cubic meters.
Example line graph with key elements
Scatterplot
• Depicts relationships between continuous data.

• There may be multiple data points for each unit of x.

• Plot data points using x and y coordinates but do not connect them.

• Scatterplots are useful to reveal:

• The overall strength of the relationship between variables (data points that are concentrated together
= a stronger relationship and data points that are spread out = a weaker relationship).

• The direction of the relationship (positive, negative, or no relationship).

• The data pattern (linear/straight versus nonlinear/curved).

• Outliers (a data point that is highly different from the general trend).
Introduction to example Scatterplot
• A scatterplot is a series of dots that represent data points. These dots
are not connected by a line.
• This example displays the relationship between the length in
centimeters and weight of Largemouth bass in kilograms. Length is on
the x-axis and weight is on the y-axis. Data are modified from
Neumann (2017).
• The graph indicates that longer fish will weigh more.
• When creating a scatterplot, remember to label both axes, indicate
the unit of measurement, remove grid lines, and place a figure
caption below the figure.
Example Scatterplot
Trend lines and Outliers in Scatterplots
• Trend lines
• Sometimes you will need to include a trend line to further analyze a
relationship between two variables or for predictive purposes.
• A trend line (also called the line of best fit) is a straight line or curve that
depicts the general trend of the data. As a result, the trend line may
not pass through all of the data points.
• Outliers
• An outlier is set apart from the rest of the data points.
• An outlier could be a true, unusual result or may be due to error
occurring during sampling, analysis, or data entry.
Example scatterplot with trend line
Example scatterplot with outlier
Histogram

• Divides continuous data into logical groups/intervals to illustrate how data are distributed
using vertical bars.

• In histograms, the x-axis displays groups/intervals of data called bins. There should be a
sufficient number counted within a bin. Software such as Excel or R will automatically
calculate bin width to cover the range of values that exist in a data set. The y-axis shows
the number of times a value appears in the dataset.
Histograms are useful to reveal:
• The shape of the data – Is the data symmetrical or not? The data are symmetrical when they are
normally distributed (i.e. bell-shaped). Data are skewed to the left when most of the data points bunch
up at the left side of the graph. Data are skewed to the right when most of the data points cluster at the
right side of the graph.

• The shape of the data continued – Are the data unimodal, bimodal, multimodal, or uniform? The tallest
vertical bars in the histogram are called peaks and represent the most frequent values in the data set.
Unimodal means there is one peak, bimodal means there are two peaks, and multimodal means there
are multiple peaks. When the data are spread equally across the data set without any peaks, the data
are uniformly distributed.

• The spread of the data – How variable is the data? If the data are clumped together they are narrowly
spread. Alternatively, if the data cover a large range they are considered widely spread.

• The center of the data – What is the central tendency of the data? The median can be used to measure
the center of the data set in skewed distributions and the mean or median can be used for normally
distributed data.

• Any outliers in the data set.

Introduction to Histogram example
• Histograms show the distribution of data using vertical bars that do not have
any spaces between them.
• The next slide shows an example of a histogram depicting the weight
distribution of individual polar bears tagged and re-captured in a study area in
northern Ontario.
• Weight groups in kilograms are divided into 50 kilogram intervals on the x-axis
and frequency is on the y-axis.
• There were 21 polar bears weighed in this study and the histogram indicates
that eight individuals weighed between 50 to 100 kilograms. The next highest
grouping is between 150 to 200 kilograms followed by a grouping between 100
to 150 kilograms. Lastly, there were two individuals that weighed between 200
and 250 kilograms and two more that weighed between 250 and 300 kilograms.
Example Histogram
Bar graph

• Compares proportions or count data.

• Consider using when the independent variable is not continuous.

• Bar graphs are useful to see general trends.

Introduction to bar graph example
• Bar graphs have vertical bars with spaces between them to represent
data.
• This example displays the mean length of Largemouth bass sampled by
angling in the Kawartha Lakes Region in Ontario.
• The location of the water bodies is on the x-axis and the length of the
fish in centimeters is on the y-axis.
• Little Lake had the smallest fish and Balsam Lake had the largest fish.
• When creating a bar graph, remember to label both axes, indicate the
unit of measurement on the y-axis, remove grid lines, include error bars
if you are displaying means, and place a figure caption below the figure.
Example Bar Graph
What is the difference between histograms and bar
graphs?
• Histograms depict the shape, spread, and central tendency of data
whereas bar graphs compare variables.

• Histograms do not have a space between their bars because they are
displaying continuous data that are grouped into intervals. Bar graphs
have spaces between their bars because they display categorical data.

• Grouped bar graphs use vertical bars with different colours or shading to
show sub-groups of the main variable.
Histograms versus a single bar graph - example

Histogram Single Bar Graph

Histogram versus a grouped bar graph - example

Histogram Grouped bar graph

A few more tips about graphs…

• If you are submitting a hardcopy of your work, choose colours that will differentiate between
variables in the graph even if it is printed in greyscale.

• Format the size of your graph, font, and symbols based on the referencing style you are using.
Other types of figures
• Maps
• Diagrams
• Photographs
Key Elements of a Map
• Include a map as a figure to show the study area
• When adding a map to a document, remember to include:
• latitude and longitude, if possible
• a scale bar,
• a figure caption.
• It is also valuable to label any important feature you would like to
highlight.
Example Map
Introduction to Diagram Example
• Diagrams show connections between ideas or concepts.
• This diagram shows the relationship between human activities and
resulting impacts such as increased greenhouse gas emissions and
water consumption. In turn, this reduces water discharge rates. Other
factors impacting water discharge rates include ultraviolet radiation,
agricultural pollutants, industrial pollutants, eutrophication,
introduced exotic species, and acidification. Changes in water
discharge rates may negatively impact fish species.
Example Diagram
Key Elements of Photograph or Drawing
• Make sure your photographs are in focus and that the
background that does not overpower your object of interest.
• Label any areas or important features you would like to highlight.
• Include a scale
• Include a descriptive caption below the figure
• When it is appropriate, multiple graphs or photographs can be
combined in a single figure (this is called a multi-panel figure).
• Each part of the figure must be labelled with a letter (a, b, c, etc.) and
described in the caption. Capitalize and format the letters depending on
the referencing style you are using.
Introduction to photograph example
• This is an example of a multi-panel figure using two photographs.
• Each part of the figure (i.e. each photograph) must be labelled with a
letter (a, b, c, etc.) and described in the caption.
• In this experiment, Xenopus laevis tadpoles were observed at various
times post-infection from different treatment groups exposed to the
Frog virus 3 (FV3) and varying levels of imidacloprid (IMI).
• The first photograph shows the FV3 control and IMI control treatment, and
the animal exhibited no signs of infection 25 days post-infection.
• The second photograph shows the FV3 infected and IMI control treatment
animal displays edema, discolouration, a swollen peritoneal cavity, and
hemorrhaging within the tail 20 days post-treatment.
Example of multi-panel photograph
What is caption?
• A concise
description that
helps your reader
understand a table
or figure without
having to look at
the rest of the
document.
How do you make a caption?
Content:
• Usually, a caption is a combination of a title and a brief description of the methods that were used to
collect data.

• A caption title describes the data (e.g. variables, time period, location, etc.) included in the table or
figure.

• Provide enough detail about the relevant methods (e.g. data collection methods in the field or
laboratory, statistical techniques, materials used, etc.) so the reader can understand how to interpret
the table or figure.

Example
Figure 1. Annual flow (m3/s) of Fishy River between 2000-2005 measured at the Pickerel Stop
Monitoring Station by area-velocity flow meters.
Captions – Labels and numbering
• Label the tables and figures (e.g. “Table _” and Figure _”) .

• Number tables and figures in sequence based on the order they appear in a document. Note that
tables and figures are numbered separately from each other (e.g. Table 1, Table 2, Figure 1, Figure
2, Table 3).

• Refer to a table or figure by its label in text (e.g. Table 1 indicates that…). Use capitals if you are
referring to a specific table or figure.
Captions – placement
• Captions are placed below figures and above tables. Tables and figures are usually placed on the
same page as their captions.

• The placement of tables and figures in a document depends on your discipline. However, numerous
disciplines prefer that you insert a table or figure as close as possible to where it is first mentioned
in the text without disrupting the flow of your writing (e.g. at the end of a paragraph).
Captions – citations
• You do not need to provide a citation if you are using original data.

• Provide a citation if you are modifying a table, figure, or data.

• Provide a citation if you are using the exact same figure, table, or data from an information source.

• The specific formatting of your citation depends on the referencing style you are using.
Captions and Legends
• It is generally preferable to
use a legend explaining what
symbols or colours represent
in a figure. However, if you do
not have a legend you will
need to describe any
symbols, colours, or
abbreviations in the caption.
References

Bradford, A. (2014). Polar bear facts. Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/27436-polar-bear-

facts.html

Casson, N. J., Eimers, M. C., & Watmough, S. A. (2012). Impact of winter warming on the timing of
nutrient export from forested catchments. Hydrological Processes, 26(17),2546-2554.

Hanafiah, M. M., Xenopoulos, M. A., Pfister, S., Leuven, R. S., & Huijbregts, M. A. (2011).
Characterization factors for water consumption and greenhouse gas emissions based on
freshwater fish species extinction. Environmental Science & Technology, 45(12), 5272-5278.

Hrynyk, M. A., Brunetti, C., Kerr, L., & Metcalfe, C. D. (2018). Effect of imidacloprid on the survival of
Xenopus tadpoles challenged with wild type frog virus 3. Aquatic Toxicology, 194, 152-158.

Neumann, R. (2017). Largemouth bass length to weight conversion chart. Retrieved from
https://www.in-fisherman.com/editorial/bass-length-to-weight-conversion-chart/156649